This 4-th edition of the leading reference volume on distance metrics is characterized by updated and rewritten sections on some items suggested by experts and readers, as well a general streamlining of content and the addition of essential new topics. Though the structure remains unchanged, the new edition also explores recent advances in the use of distances and metrics for e.g. generalized distances, probability theory, graph theory, coding theory, data analysis. New topics in the purely mathematical sections include e.g. the Vitanyi multiset-metric, algebraic point-conic distance, triangular ratio metric, Rossi-Hamming metric, Taneja distance, spectral semimetric between graphs, channel metrization, and Maryland bridge distance. The multidisciplinary sections have also been supplemented with new topics, including: dynamic time wrapping distance, memory distance, allometry, atmospheric depth, elliptic orbit distance, VLBI distance measurements, the astronomical system of units, and walkability distance. Leaving aside the practical questions that arise during the selection of a 'good' distance function, this work focuses on providing the research community with an invaluable comprehensive listing of the main available distances. As well as providing standalone introductions and definitions, the encyclopedia facilitates swift cross-referencing with easily navigable bold-faced textual links to core entries. In addition to distances themselves, the authors have collated numerous fascinating curiosities in their Who's Who of metrics, including distance-related notions and paradigms that enable applied mathematicians in other sectors to deploy research tools that non-specialists justly view as arcane. In expanding access to these techniques, and in many cases enriching the context of distances themselves, this peerless volume is certain to stimulate fresh research.

This 4-th edition of the leading reference volume on distance metrics is characterized by updated and rewritten sections on some items suggested by experts and readers, as well a general streamlining of content and the addition of essential new topics. Though the structure remains unchanged, the new edition also explores recent advances in the use of distances and metrics for e.g. generalized distances, probability theory, graph theory, coding theory, data analysis. New topics in the purely mathematical sections include e.g. the Vitanyi multiset-metric, algebraic point-conic distance, triangular ratio metric, Rossi-Hamming metric, Taneja distance, spectral semimetric between graphs, channel metrization, and Maryland bridge distance. The multidisciplinary sections have also been supplemented with new topics, including: dynamic time wrapping distance, memory distance, allometry, atmospheric depth, elliptic orbit distance, VLBI distance measurements, the astronomical system of units, and walkability distance. Leaving aside the practical questions that arise during the selection of a 'good' distance function, this work focuses on providing the research community with an invaluable comprehensive listing of the main available distances. As well as providing standalone introductions and definitions, the encyclopedia facilitates swift cross-referencing with easily navigable bold-faced textual links to core entries. In addition to distances themselves, the authors have collated numerous fascinating curiosities in their Who's Who of metrics, including distance-related notions and paradigms that enable applied mathematicians in other sectors to deploy research tools that non-specialists justly view as arcane. In expanding access to these techniques, and in many cases enriching the context of distances themselves, this peerless volume is certain to stimulate fresh research.

Stirling numbers are one of the most known classes of special numbers in Mathematics, especially in Combinatorics and Algebra. They were introduced by Scottish mathematician James Stirling (1692-1770) in his most important work, Differential Method with a Tract on Summation and Interpolation of Infinite Series (1730). Stirling numbers have rich history; many arithmetic, number-theoretical, analytical and combinatorial connections; numerous classical properties; as well as many modern applications.This book collects together much of the scattered material on the two subclasses of Stirling numbers to provide a holistic overview of the topic. From the combinatorial point of view, Stirling numbers of the second kind S(n,k) count the number of ways to partition a set of n different objects (i.e., a given n-set) into k non-empty subsets. Stirling numbers of the first kind s(n, k) give the number of permutations of n elements with k disjoint cycles. Both subclasses of Stirling numbers play an important role in Algebra: they form the coefficients, connecting well-known sets of polynomials.This book is suitable for students and professionals, providing a broad perspective of the theory of this class of special numbers, and many generalizations and relatives of Stirling numbers, including Bell numbers and Lah numbers. Throughout the book, readers are presented with exercises to test and cement their understanding.

This book comes out of need and urgency (expressed especially in areas of Information Retrieval with respect to Image, Audio, Internet and Biology) to have a working tool to compare data.
The book will provide powerful resource for all researchers using Mathematics as well as for mathematicians themselves. In the time when over-specialization and terminology fences isolate researchers, this Dictionary try to be "centripedal" and "oikoumeni," providing some access and altitude of vision but without taking the route of scientific vulgarisation. This attempted balance is the main philosophy of this Dictionary which defined its structure and style.
Key features:
- Unicity: it is the first book treating the basic notion of Distance in whole generality.
- Interdisciplinarity: this Dictionary is larger in scope than majority of thematic dictionaries.
- Encyclopedicity: while an Encyclopedia of Distances seems now too difficult to produce, this book (by its scope, short introductions and organization) provides the main material for it and for future tutorials on some parts of this material.
- Applicability: the distances, as well as distance-related notions and paradigms, are provided in ready-to-use fashion.
- Worthiness: the need and urgency for such dictionary was great in several huge areas, esp. Information Retrieval, Image Analysis, Speech Recognition and Biology.
- Accessibility: the definitions are easy to locate by subject or, in Index, by alphabetic order; the introductions and definitions are reader-friendly and maximally independent one from another; still the text is structured, in the 3D HTML style, by hyperlink-like boldfaced references to similar definitions.
* Covers a large range of subjects in pure and applied mathematics
* Designed to be easily applied--the distances and distance-related notions and paradigms are ready to use
* Helps users quickly locate definitions by subject or in alphabetical order; stand-alone entries include references to other entries and sources for further investigation

Perfect and amicable numbers, as well as a majority of classes of special numbers, have a long and rich history connected with the names of many famous mathematicians. This book gives a complete presentation of the theory of two classes of special numbers (perfect numbers and amicable numbers) and gives much of their properties, facts and theorems with full proofs of them, as well as their numerous analogue and generalizations.

Figurate numbers have a rich history with many applications. The main purpose of this book is to provide a thorough and complete presentation of the theory of figurate numbers, giving much of their properties, facts and theorems with full proofs. This book is the first of this topic written in unified systematic way. It also contains many exercises with solutions.

This book contains a complete detailed description of two classes of special numbers closely related to classical problems of the Theory of Primes. There is also extensive discussions of applied issues related to Cryptography.In Mathematics, a Mersenne number (named after Marin Mersenne, who studied them in the early 17-th century) is a number of the form Mn = 2n - 1 for positive integer n.In Mathematics, a Fermat number (named after Pierre de Fermat who first studied them) is a positive integer of the form Fn = 2k+ 1, k=2n, where n is a non-negative integer.Mersenne and Fermat numbers have many other interesting properties. Long and rich history, many arithmetic connections (with perfect numbers, with construction of regular polygons etc.), numerous modern applications, long list of open problems allow us to provide a broad perspective of the Theory of these two classes of special numbers, that can be useful and interesting for both professionals and the general audience.

This book introduces oriented version of metrics and cuts and their multidimensional analogues, as well as partial metrics and weighted metrics. It is a follow-up of Geometry of Cuts and Metrics by Deza and Laurent which presents rich theory of classical binary and symmetric objects - metrics and cuts.Many research publications on this subject are devoted to different special aspects of the theory of generalized metrics. However, they are disconnected one from other, often written in different mathematical language, consider the same objects from different points of view without analysis of possible connections, etc. In this book we will construct full theory of main classes of finite generalized metrics and their polyhedral aspects.

This updated and revised third edition of the leading reference volume on distance metrics includes new items from very active research areas in the use of distances and metrics such as geometry, graph theory, probability theory and analysis. Among the new topics included are, for example, polyhedral metric space, nearness matrix problems, distances between belief assignments, distance-related animal settings, diamond-cutting distances, natural units of length, Heidegger's de-severance distance, and brain distances. The publication of this volume coincides with intensifying research efforts into metric spaces and especially distance design for applications. Accurate metrics have become a crucial goal in computational biology, image analysis, speech recognition and information retrieval. Leaving aside the practical questions that arise during the selection of a 'good' distance function, this work focuses on providing the research community with an invaluable comprehensive listing of the main available distances. As well as providing standalone introductions and definitions, the encyclopedia facilitates swift cross-referencing with easily navigable bold-faced textual links to core entries. In addition to distances themselves, the authors have collated numerous fascinating curiosities in their Who's Who of metrics, including distance-related notions and paradigms that enable applied mathematicians in other sectors to deploy research tools that non-specialists justly view as arcane. In expanding access to these techniques, and in many cases enriching the context of distances themselves, this peerless volume is certain to stimulate fresh research.