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The subject of low-energy excitations has evolved since
two-level-tunneling systems were first proposed ~50 years ago.
Initially they were used to explain the common anomalous properties
of oxide glasses and polymers; now the subject includes a wide
range of other materials containing disorder: amorphous
semiconductors and metals, doped- mixed- and quasi-crystals,
surface adsorbates, ... and topics such as dephasing of quantum
states and interferometer noise. A fairly simple empirical
description using a remarkably small range of parameters serves
well to describe the effect of these excitations, but the
structures causing these effects are known in only a few materials
and the reasons for their similarity across disparate materials has
only been qualitatively addressed.This book provides a unified,
comprehensive description of tunneling systems in disordered solids
suitable for graduate students/researchers wishing an introduction
to the field. Its focus is on the tunneling systems intrinsic to
glassy solids. It describes the experimental observations of
'glassy' properties, develops the basic empirical tunneling model,
and discusses the dynamics changes on cooling to temperatures where
direct excitation interactions become important and on heating to
where tunneling gives way to thermal activation. Finally, it
discusses how theories of glass formation can help us understand
the ubiquity of these excitations.The Development of the basic
tunneling model is the core of the book and is worked out in
considerable detail. To keep the total within bounds of our
expertise and the readers' patience, many related experimental and
theoretical developments are only sketched out here; the text is
heavily cited to allow readers to follow their specific interests
in much more depth.
Central Asia consists of five newly independent states situated
between Russia, China, and Iran halfway around the world from the
United States. For the last eight years, the Central Asian States
(CAS) have been the object of considerable attention from the
United States. The focus of this research is to identify what
national interests the United States has in Central Asia, how
national interests link to U.S. foreign policy, and explain the
benefits and implications of the U.S. pursuing engagement and
development in the region. Although the political, economic, and
military costs of U.S. engagement in Central Asia are high, so are
the benefits.
This widely-adopted casebook provides detailed information on
federal income taxation, with specific assignments to the Internal
Revenue Code, selected cases, and regulations and rulings from the
Internal Revenue Service. The revised and updated Twentieth Edition
marks the 50th anniversary of the casebook's first publication, and
in this edition Professor Heather M. Field (University of
California, Hastings) joins the casebook as an author. This new
edition retains the book's long standing format and much of its
prior materials, but it is updated to reflect recent events
including legislative, judicial, and regulatory developments. The
new edition contains expanded materials on tax policy, including
discussions of (1) the fundamentals of tax policy, (2) a comparison
of the definition of income under the Internal Revenue Code and
under Haig-Simons, (3) the realization requirement for gains and
losses, (4) the argument for and against the stepped-up basis in
Section 1014, (5) a critique of tax expenditures, and (6) the
preferential treatment of capital gains. Other significant changes
in the casebook include new or revised coverage, sometimes with
problems, of: (1) judicial review of Treasury regulations, (2)
taxation of virtual currencies, (3) the exclusion for discharge of
student loans, (4) the Section 274 limitation on the deductibility
of entertainment and meal expenditures, (5) the Section 280A
limitation on the deductibility of expenses in connection with the
business use of a home, (6) the Section 280E limitation on the
deductibility of expenditures in connection with sales of illegal
drugs, (7) the concepts of adjusted gross income and miscellaneous
itemized deductions, (8) the tax benefit doctrine, (9) net
operating losses, (10) Special Opportunity Zones, and (11) the
definition of "real property" under Section 1031.
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