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Richard Swinburne presents a new edition of the final volume of his
acclaimed trilogy on philosophical theology. Faith and Reason is a
self-standing examination of the implications for religious faith
of Swinburne's famous arguments about the coherence of theism and
the existence of God. By practising a particular religion, a person
seeks to achieve some or all of three goals - that he worships and
obeys God, gains salvation for himself, and helps others to attain
their salvation. But not all religions commend worship, and
different religions have different conceptions of salvation. Faced
with these differences, Richard Swinburne argues that we should
practice that religion which has the best goals and is more
probably true than the creeds of other religions. He proposes
criteria by which to determine the probabilities of different
religious creeds, and he argues that, while requiring total
commitment, faith does not demand fully convinced belief. While
maintaining the same structure and conclusions as the original
classic, this second edition has been substantially rewritten, both
in order to relate its ideas more closely to those of classical
theologians and philosophers and to respond to more recent views.
In particular he discusses, and ultimately rejects, the view of
Alvin Plantinga that the 'warrant' of a belief depends on the
process which produced it, and John Hick's contention that all
religions offer valid paths to salvation.
Richard Swinburne presents a substantially rewritten and updated
edition of his most celebrated book. No other work has made a more
powerful case for the probability of the existence of God.
Swinburne argues compellingly that the existence of the universe,
its law-governed nature and fine-tuning, human consciousness and
moral awareness, and evidence of miracles and religious experience,
all taken together (and despite the occurrence of pain and
suffering), make it likely that there is a God.
Whether or not Jesus rose bodily from the dead remains perhaps the
most critical and contentious issue in Christianity. Until now,
argument has centred upon the veracity of explicit New Testament
accounts of the events following Jesus's crucifixion, often ending
in deadlock. In Richard Swinburne's approach, though, ascertaining
the probable truth of the Resurrection requires a much broader
approach to the nature of God and to the life and teaching of
Jesus. The Resurrection can only have occurred if God intervened in
history to raise to life a man dead for 36 hours. It is therefore
crucial not only to weigh the evidence of natural theology for the
existence of a God who has some reason so to intervene, but also to
discover whether the life and teaching of Jesus show him to be
uniquely the kind of person whom God would have raised Swinburne
argues that God has reason to interfere in history by becoming
incarnate, and that it is highly improbable that we would find the
evidence we do for the life and teaching of Jesus, as well as the
evidence from witnesses to his empty tomb and later appearances, if
Jesus was not God incarnate and did not rise from the dead.
The Royal Institute of Philosophy has been sponsoring conferences
in alter nate years since 1969. These have from the start been
intended to be of interest to persons who are not philosophers by
profession. They have mainly focused on interdisciplinary areas
such as the philosophies of psychology, education and the social
sciences. The volumes arising from these conferences have included
discussions between philosophers and distinguished practitioners of
other disciplines relevant to the chosen topic. Beginning with the
1979 conference on 'Law, Morality and Rights' and the 1981
conference on 'Space, Time and Causality' these volumes are now
constituted as a series. It is hoped that this series will
contribute to advancing philosophical understanding at the
frontiers of philosophy and areas of interest to non-philosophers.
It is hoped that it will do so by writing which reduces
technicalities as much as the subject-matter permits. In this way
the series is intended to demonstrate that philosophy can be clear
and worthwhile in itself and at the same time relevant to the
interests of lay people."
Mind, Brain, and Free Will presents a powerful new case for
substance dualism (the theory that humans consist of two parts body
and soul) and for libertarian free will (that humans have some
freedom to choose between alternatives, independently of the causes
which influence them). Richard Swinburne begins by analysing the
criteria for one event or substance being the same event or
substance as another one, and the criteria for an event being
metaphysically possible; and then goes on to analyse the criteria
for beliefs about these issues being rational or justified. Given
these criteria, he then proceeds to argue that pure mental events
(including conscious events) are distinct from physical events and
interact with them. He claims that no result from neuroscience or
any other science could show that there is no such interaction, and
illustrates this claim by showing that recent scientific work (such
as Libet's experiments) has no tendency whatever to show that our
intentions do not cause brain events. Swinburne goes on to argue
for agent causation, that-to speak precisely-it is we, and not our
intentions, that cause our brain events. It is metaphysically
possible that each of us could acquire a new brain or continue to
exist without a brain; and so we are essentially souls. Brain
events and conscious events are so different from each other that
it would not be possible to establish a scientific theory which
would predict what each of us would do in situations of moral
conflict. Hence given a crucial epistemological principle (the
Principle of Credulity), we should believe that things are as they
seem to be: that we make choices independently of the causes which
influence us. According to Swinburne's lucid and ambitious account,
it follows that we are morally responsible for our actions.
Mind, Brain, and Free Will presents a powerful new case for
substance dualism (the theory that humans consist of two parts body
and soul) and for libertarian free will (that humans have some
freedom to choose between alternatives, independently of the causes
which influence them). Richard Swinburne begins by analysing the
criteria for one event or substance being the same event or
substance as another one, and the criteria for an event being
metaphysically possible; and then goes on to analyse the criteria
for beliefs about these issues being rational or justified. Given
these criteria, he then proceeds to argue that pure mental events
(including conscious events) are distinct from physical events and
interact with them. He claims that no result from neuroscience or
any other science could show that there is no such interaction, and
illustrates this claim by showing that recent scientific work (such
as Libet's experiments) has no tendency whatever to show that our
intentions do not cause brain events. Swinburne goes on to argue
for agent causation, that-to speak precisely-it is we, and not our
intentions, that cause our brain events. It is metaphysically
possible that each of us could acquire a new brain or continue to
exist without a brain; and so we are essentially souls. Brain
events and conscious events are so different from each other that
it would not be possible to establish a scientific theory which
would predict what each of us would do in situations of moral
conflict. Hence given a crucial epistemological principle (the
Principle of Credulity), we should believe that things are as they
seem to be: that we make choices independently of the causes which
influence us. According to Swinburne's lucid and ambitious account,
it follows that we are morally responsible for our actions.
The Royal Institute of Philosophy has been sponsoring conferences
in alter nate years since 1969. These have from the start been
intended to be of interest to persons who are not philosophers by
profession. They have mainly focused on interdisciplinary areas
such as the philosophies of psychology, education and the social
sciences. The volumes arising from these conferences have included
discussions between philosophers and distinguished practitioners of
other disciplines relevant to the chosen topic. Beginning with the
1979 conference on 'Law, Morality and Rights' and the 1981
conference on 'Space, Time and Causality' these volumes are now
constituted as a series. It is hoped that this series will
contribute to advancing philosophical understanding at the
frontiers of philosophy and areas of interest to non-philosophers.
It is hoped that it will do so by writing which reduces
technicalities as much as the subject-matter permits. In this way
the series is intended to demonstrate that philosophy can be clear
and worthwhile in itself and at the same time relevant to the
interests of lay people."
The great religions often claim that their books or creeds contain
truths revealed by God. How could we know that they do? In the
second edition of Revelation, renowned philosopher of religion
Richard Swinburne addresses this central question. But since the
books of great religions often contain much poetry and parable,
Swinburne begins by investigating how eternal truth can be conveyed
in unfamiliar genres, by analogy and metaphor, within false
presuppositions about science and history. In the final part of the
book, Swinburne then applies the results of Parts I and II to
assessing the evidence that the teaching of the Christian Church
constitutes a revelation from God.
In the course of his philosophical exploration, Swinburne
considers how the church which Jesus founded is to be identified
today and presents a sustained discussion of which passages in the
Bible should be understood literally and which should be understood
metaphorically.
This is a fuller and entirely rewritten second edition of
Revelation, the most notable new feature of which is a long chapter
examining whether traditional Christian claims about personal
morality (divorce, homosexuality, abortion, etc.) can be regarded
as revealed truths. A formal appendix shows how the structure of
evidence supporting the Christian revelation can be articulated in
terms of the probability calculus (and shows that Plantinga's
well-known argument from "dwindling probabilities" against
probabilistic arguments of this kind is not cogent).
Richard Swinburne offers an original treatment of a question at the heart of epistemology: what makes a belief a rational one, or one which the believer is justified in holding? He maps the many different accounts of epistemic justification, and distinguishes the different kinds of justification that they identify. He argues that while most kinds of justification are worth having, only one kind --internalist justification -- can guide a believer's actions. And he shows how probability theory can illuminate the role of empirical evidence in the justification of belief.
What are humans? What makes us who we are? Many think that we are
just complicated machines, or animals that are different from
machines only by being conscious. In Are We Bodies or Souls?
Richard Swinburne comes to the defence of the soul and presents new
philosophical arguments that are supported by modern neuroscience.
When scientific advances enable neuroscientists to transplant a
part of brain into a new body, he reasons, no matter how much we
can find out about their brain activity or conscious experiences we
will never know whether the resulting person is the same as before
or somebody entirely new. Swinburne thus argues that we are
immaterial souls sustained in existence by our brains. Sensations,
thoughts, and intentions are conscious events in our souls that
cause events in our brains. While scientists might discover some of
the laws of nature that determine conscious events and brain
events, each person's soul is an individual thing and this is what
ultimately makes us who we are.
The Coherence of Theism investigates what it means, and whether it
is coherent, to say that there is a God. Richard Swinburne
concludes that despite philosophical objections, most traditional
claims about God are coherent (that is, do not involve
contradictions); and although some of the most important claims are
coherent only if the words by which they are expressed are being
used in analogical senses, this is the way in which theologians
have usually claimed that they are being used. When the first
edition of this book was published in 1977, it was the first book
in the new 'analytic' tradition of philosophy of religion to
discuss these issues. Since that time there have been very many
books and discussions devoted to them, and this new, substantially
rewritten, second edition takes account of these discussions and of
new developments in philosophy generally over the past 40 years.
These discussions have concerned how to analyse the claim that God
is 'omnipotent', whether God can foreknow human free actions,
whether God is everlasting or timeless, and what it is for God to
be a 'necessary being'. On all these issues this new edition has
new things to say.
The Coherence of Theism investigates what it means, and whether it
is coherent, to say that there is a God. Richard Swinburne
concludes that despite philosophical objections, most traditional
claims about God are coherent (that is, do not involve
contradictions); and although some of the most important claims are
coherent only if the words by which they are expressed are being
used in analogical senses, this is the way in which theologians
have usually claimed that they are being used. When the first
edition of this book was published in 1977, it was the first book
in the new 'analytic' tradition of philosophy of religion to
discuss these issues. Since that time there have been very many
books and discussions devoted to them, and this new, substantially
rewritten, second edition takes account of these discussions and of
new developments in philosophy generally over the past 40 years.
These discussions have concerned how to analyse the claim that God
is 'omnipotent', whether God can foreknow human free actions,
whether God is everlasting or timeless, and what it is for God to
be a 'necessary being'. On all these issues this new edition has
new things to say.
Men have evolved from animals, and animals from inanimate matter,
but what has evolved is qualitatively different from the inanimate
matter from which it began. Both men and the higher animals have a
mental life of sensation, thought, purpose, desire, and belief.
Although these mental states in part cause, and are caused by,
brain states, they are distinct from them. Richard Swinburne argues
that we can only make sense of this interaction by supposing that
mental states are states of a soul, a mental substance in
interaction with the body. Although both have a rich mental life,
human souls, unlike animal souls, are capable of logical thought,
have moral beliefs, have free will, and have an internal structure
(so that their beliefs and desires are formed largely by other
beliefs and desires inherent in the soul). Professor Swinburne
concludes that there is no full scientific explanation available
for the evolution of the soul, and almost certainly there never
will be. For this revised edition Professor Swinburne has taken the
opportunity to strengthen or expand the argument in various places,
to take account of certain developments in philosophy and cognitive
science in the interven
What are humans? What makes us who we are? Many think that we are
just complicated machines, or animals that are different from
machines only by being conscious. In Are We Bodies or Souls?
Richard Swinburne comes to the defence of the soul and presents new
philosophical arguments that are supported by modern neuroscience.
When scientific advances enable neuroscientists to transplant a
part of brain into a new body, he reasons, no matter how much we
can find out about their brain activity or conscious experiences we
will never know whether the resulting person is the same as before
or somebody entirely new. Swinburne thus argues that we are
immaterial souls sustained in existence by our brains. Sensations,
thoughts, and intentions are conscious events in our souls that
cause events in our brains. While scientists might discover some of
the laws of nature that determine conscious events and brain
events, each person's soul is an individual thing and this is what
ultimately makes us who we are.
The great religions often claim that their books or creeds contain
truths revealed by God. How could we know that they do? In the
second edition of Revelation, renowned philosopher of religion
Richard Swinburne addresses this central question. But since the
books of great religions often contain much poetry and parable,
Swinburne begins by investigating how eternal truth can be conveyed
in unfamiliar genres, by analogy and metaphor, within false
presuppositions about science and history. In the final part of the
book, Swinburne then applies the results of Parts I and II to
assessing the evidence that the teaching of the Christian Church
constitutes a revelation from God.
In the course of his philosophical exploration, Swinburne
considers how the church which Jesus founded is to be identified
today and presents a sustained discussion of which passages in the
Bible should be understood literally and which should be understood
metaphorically.
This is a fuller and entirely rewritten second edition of
Revelation, the most notable new feature of which is a long chapter
examining whether traditional Christian claims about personal
morality (divorce, homosexuality, abortion, etc.) can be regarded
as revealed truths. A formal appendix shows how the structure of
evidence supporting the Christian revelation can be articulated in
terms of the probability calculus (and shows that Plantinga's
well-known argument from "dwindling probabilities" against
probabilistic arguments of this kind is not cogent).
Richard Swinburne presents a new edition of the final volume of his
acclaimed trilogy on philosophical theology. Faith and Reason is a
self-standing examination of the implications for religious faith
of Swinburne's famous arguments about the coherence of theism and
the existence of God. By practising a particular religion, a person
seeks to achieve some or all of three goals - that he worships and
obeys God, gains salvation for himself, and helps others to attain
their salvation. But not all religions commend worship, and
different religions have different conceptions of salvation. Faced
with these differences, Richard Swinburne argues that we should
practice that religion which has the best goals and is more
probably true than the creeds of other religions. He proposes
criteria by which to determine the probabilities of different
religious creeds, and he argues that, while requiring total
commitment, faith does not demand fully convinced belief. While
maintaining the same structure and conclusions as the original
classic, this second edition has been substantially rewritten, both
in order to relate its ideas more closely to those of classical
theologians and philosophers and to respond to more recent views.
In particular he discusses, and ultimately rejects, the view of
Alvin Plantinga that the 'warrant' of a belief depends on the
process which produced it, and John Hick's contention that all
religions offer valid paths to salvation.
Richard Swinburne presents a substantially rewritten and updated
edition of his most celebrated book. No other work has made a more
powerful case for the probability of the existence of God.
Swinburne gives a rigorous and penetrating analysis of the most
important arguments for theism: the cosmological argument;
arguments from the existence of laws of nature and the
'fine-tuning' of the universe; from the occurrence of consciousness
and moral awareness; and from miracles and religious experience. He
claims that while none of these arguments are deductively valid,
they do give inductive support to theism and that, even when the
argument from evil is weighed against them, taken together they
offer good grounds to support the probability that there is a God.
The overall structure of the discussion and its conclusion have
been retained for this new edition, but much has been changed in
order to strengthen the argumentation and to take account of
Swinburne's subsequent work on the nature of consciousness and the
problem of evil, and of the latest philosophical and scientific
writing, especially in respect of the laws of nature and the
argument from fine-tuning. This is now the definitive version of a
classic in the philosophy of religion.
The orderliness of the universe and the existence of human beings
already provides some reason for believing that there is a God - as
argued in Richard Swinburne's earlier book Is There a God ?
Swinburne now claims that it is probable that the main Christian
doctrines about the nature of God and his actions in the world are
true. In virtue of his omnipotence and perfect goodness, God must
be a Trinity, live a human life in order to share our suffering,
and found a church which would enable him to tell all humans about
this. It is also quite probable that he would provide his human
life as an atonement for our wrongdoing, teach us how we should
live and tell us his plans for our future after death. Among
founders of religions, Jesus satisfies uniquely well the
requirement of living the sort of human life which God would need
to have lived. But to give us adequate reason to believe that Jesus
was God, God would need to put his 'signature' on the life of Jesus
by an act which he alone could do, for example raise him from the
dead. There is adequate historical evidence that Jesus rose from
the dead. The church which he founded gave plausible
interpretations of his basic message. Therefore Christian doctrines
are probably true.
Richard Swinburne offers an original treatment of a question at the heart of epistemology: what makes a belief a rational one, or one which the believer is justified in holding? He maps the many different accounts of epistemic justification, and distinguishes the different kinds of justification that they identify. He argues that while most kinds of justification are worth having, only one kind --internalist justification -- can guide a believer's actions. And he shows how probability theory can illuminate the role of empirical evidence in the justification of belief.
The orderliness of the universe and the existence of human beings
already provides some reason for believing that there is a God - as
argued in Richard Swinburne's earlier book Is There a God ?
Swinburne now claims that it is probable that the main Christian
doctrines about the nature of God and his actions in the world are
true. In virtue of his omnipotence and perfect goodness, God must
be a Trinity, live a human life in order to share our suffering,
and found a church which would enable him to tell all humans about
this. It is also quite probable that he would provide his human
life as an atonement for our wrongdoing, teach us how we should
live and tell us his plans for our future after death. Among
founders of religions, Jesus satisfies uniquely well the
requirement of living the sort of human life which God would need
to have lived. But to give us adequate reason to believe that Jesus
was God, God would need to put his 'signature' on the life of Jesus
by an act which he alone could do, for example raise him from the
dead. There is adequate historical evidence that Jesus rose from
the dead. The church which he founded gave plausible
interpretations of his basic message. Therefore Christian doctrines
are probably true.
Whether or not Jesus rose bodily from the dead is perhaps the most critical and contentious issue in the study of Christianity. Until now, scholars have concentrated on explicit statements in the New Testament to support their views, but Richard Swinburne argues for a wider approach, asking instead whether the character of God and the life of Jesus support the probability of the Resurrection. His book will be of great interest not only to academics but to anyone with an interest in religious philosophy and doctrine.
Richard Swinburne offers an answer to one of the most difficult problems of religious belief: why does a loving God allow humans to suffer so much? Swinburne argues that God wants much more for us than pleasure or freedom from suffering: he wants us to learn and to love, to make the choices which make great differences for good or evil to each other, to form our characters in the way we choose; above all, to be of great use to each other. If we are to have all this, there will inevitably be suffering for the short period of our lives on Earth. Because of the good that God gives to humans in this life, and makes possible, through our choice, thereafter, he does not wrong us in allowing suffering. Providence and the Problem of Evil is the final instalment of Swinburne's acclaimed four-volume philosophical examination of Christian doctrine.
What is it for there to be a God, and what reason is there for supposing Him to conform to the claims of Christian doctrine? Working within a rigorous framework of modern analytic philosophy, Richard Swinburne spells out the simplest possible account of the divine nature, and goes on to assess the specifically Christian doctrines of the Trinity and of the Incarnation.
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