While military law is often narrowly understood and studied as the specific and specialist laws, processes and institutions governing service personnel, this accessible book takes a broader approach, examining military justice from a wider consideration of the rights and duties of government and soldiers engaged in military operations. By exploring the relationship between the military and society, Nigel White develops a nuanced rationale for military justice. Making the case for both the continuation of military justice and key reforms, he analyses the military's place in society and recognises the wider influences of justice and law upon it. Throughout the book, military justice is framed broadly to cover all relevant laws including service law, constitutional law, the law of armed conflict, international human rights law and international criminal law. This discussion is supported with analysis of a range of jurisprudence from domestic and international courts. The book considers the legal problems that arise in different military contexts, as well as positioning military justice as a balance between the rights and duties of government and those of soldiers. Tackling an important and timely topic, Military Justice will be key reading for academics, researchers and students within the fields of human rights, public international law, conflict and security law, and especially those with an interest in service law, military history and war studies. It will also be a useful reference point for practitioners working within relevant prosecuting authorities and within law firms offering legal advice to soldiers.

While military law is often narrowly understood and studied as the specific and specialist laws, processes and institutions governing service personnel, this accessible book takes a broader approach, examining military justice from a wider consideration of the rights and duties of government and soldiers engaged in military operations. By exploring the relationship between the military and society, Nigel White develops a nuanced rationale for military justice. Making the case for both the continuation of military justice and key reforms, he analyses the military's place in society and recognises the wider influences of justice and law upon it. Throughout the book, military justice is framed broadly to cover all relevant laws including service law, constitutional law, the law of armed conflict, international human rights law and international criminal law. This discussion is supported with analysis of a range of jurisprudence from domestic and international courts. The book considers the legal problems that arise in different military contexts, as well as positioning military justice as a balance between the rights and duties of government and those of soldiers. Tackling an important and timely topic, Military Justice will be key reading for academics, researchers and students within the fields of human rights, public international law, conflict and security law, and especially those with an interest in service law, military history and war studies. It will also be a useful reference point for practitioners working within relevant prosecuting authorities and within law firms offering legal advice to soldiers.

This book provides a comprehensive and detailed analysis of the nature, content and scope of the rules regulating the use of force in international law as they are contained in the United Nations Charter, customary international law and international jurisprudence. The book's scope is broad and covers the prohibition on the threat or use of force; the use of force in self-defence; the use of force as part of the United Nations collective security system; the use of force by regional organisations; the use of force in peacekeeping operations; the use of force for humanitarian purposes; the use of force by invitation; armed reprisals; the use of force by and against non-State actors; and the use of force in cyberspace. The book takes an insightful look at the rules regulating the use of force as they are called upon to apply to changing and challenging circumstances such as the emergence of non-State actors, security risks, new technologies and moral considerations. Its arguments balance the interests of stability and change in order to enhance international law's regulatory potential regarding the use of force. This book is an important resource for students and scholars of international law, the use of force and collective security and for practitioners involved in the interpretation and application of these legal frameworks.

This Research Handbook is of great importance in an era where torture, whilst universally condemned, remains endemic. It explores the nature of the international prohibition of torture and the various means and mechanisms which have been put in place by the international community in an attempt to make that prohibition a reality.   Edited by Chairs of the UN Committee against Torture and of the UN Subcommittee for Prevention of Torture, this Research Handbook considers both the legal and medical dimensions of torture, as well as societal and philosophical perspectives. Contributions from experts with personal experience of working with torture victims and survivors in medical, legal and political settings survey practice within the UN and regional human rights systems, international criminal and domestic legal settings, and in medical and rehabilitative contexts. These expert perspectives combine to offer a unique range of insights into the realities of tackling torture in the contemporary world.   Critical and timely, the Research Handbook on Torture will prove compulsive reading for students and scholars of human rights. Its practical dimension will also engage practitioners in the field, as well as legal and medical professionals working on torture-related issues.

International Humanitarian Law (IHL) is in a state of some turbulence, as a result of, among other things, non-international armed conflicts, terrorist threats and the rise of new technologies. This incisive book observes that while states appear to be reluctant to act as agents of change, informal methods of law-making are flourishing. Illustrating that not only courts, but various non-state actors, push for legal developments, this timely work offers an insight into the causes of this somewhat ambivalent state of IHL by focusing attention on both the legitimacy of law-making processes and the actors involved. Investigating what law-making processes reveal about the overall state of this legal regime, this thought-provoking book shows that current developments display a far-reaching disagreement about the direction into which IHL should evolve. It explores the most relevant trends in the development of IHL including the absence of formal law-making by states, informal law-making through manual processes and the increasing role of sub and non-state actors. Law-Making and Legitimacy in International Humanitarian Law will be of benefit to scholars and students of international law and relations, as well as practitioners working in the field of IHL, particularly in government ministries, international organizations and NGOs.

This book provides a comprehensive and detailed analysis of the nature, content and scope of the rules regulating the use of force in international law as they are contained in the United Nations Charter, customary international law and international jurisprudence. The book's scope is broad and covers the prohibition on the threat or use of force; the use of force in self-defence; the use of force as part of the United Nations collective security system; the use of force by regional organisations; the use of force in peacekeeping operations; the use of force for humanitarian purposes; the use of force by invitation; armed reprisals; the use of force by and against non-State actors; and the use of force in cyberspace. The book takes an insightful look at the rules regulating the use of force as they are called upon to apply to changing and challenging circumstances such as the emergence of non-State actors, security risks, new technologies and moral considerations. Its arguments balance the interests of stability and change in order to enhance international law's regulatory potential regarding the use of force. This book is an important resource for students and scholars of international law, the use of force and collective security and for practitioners involved in the interpretation and application of these legal frameworks.

This illuminating book explores the nature of international humanitarian law (IHL), so doing by asking whether it should be seen as a permissive or a restrictive regime. An experienced lawyer in the field, Anne Quintin offers an in-depth expert analysis of this highly debated topic. In the eyes of many, the primary purpose of IHL is to impose restrictions on the actions of parties in armed conflicts, in order to protect victims. But IHL is also increasingly cited as an authority in permitting conduct that would be deemed unlawful in peacetime, for instance some cases of internment or targeting of persons. Considering both international and non-international armed conflicts, Quintin carefully and astutely peels away the layers of this debate, revealing the true nature of IHL and concluding that whilst IHL initially developed as a restrictive regime composed of prohibitions and prescriptions, it nevertheless contains within it rare permissions that allow states to act. Utilising a scientific methodology to offer concrete and realistic outcomes, whilst couching differing interpretations of IHL in wider debates surrounding the nature of international law, this book will be of interest to all academics, practitioners and policy-makers in the field of international humanitarian law. Its analysis of how people are effectively protected during an armed conflict will also be beneficial for the wider humanitarian community.

Across the world, mass graves, often containing a multitude of human remains, are sites of human loss, suffering and unimaginable acts of cruelty. While no one mass grave or its investigation is the same, all mass graves contain evidence that is essential to the realisation of justice and accountability goals for victims, affected communities, states in transition and the international community. This book tactfully examines this sensitive topic, demonstrating how mass grave investigations can be highly complex, context-specific, lengthy and expensive processes, requiring significant planning, coordination, expertise and resources. The book analyses the various processes involved in mass grave investigation from a number of disciplinary perspectives and a variety of geographical, cultural and political contexts, including Bosnia, Guatemala, Libya, Nepal and Rwanda. Chapters feature expert contributions from voices in the fields of forensic sciences, advocacy and the judiciary, along with world-leading international legal expertise on mass graves, their protection and investigation. This timely book will be an ideal resource for practitioners and academics in the fields of international criminal law, international human rights law, international humanitarian law and transitional justice. Students interested in forensic archaeology, anthropology, fact-finding and human rights investigations will also find this a stimulating read.

Although child soldiers have received considerable media and policy attention, they remain poorly understood and inadequately protected. This Research Handbook addresses this troubling gap by offering a reflective and nuanced review of the complex issue of child soldiering. Containing original contributions from leading experts in many disciplines working across six continents, this comprehensive Handbook showcases diverse experiences and unique perspectives. The Handbook unpacks the life-cycle of youth and militarization: from recruitment, to demobilization, and return to civilian life. Challenging prevailing assumptions and conceptions, this uplifting Handbook focuses on the child soldier's capacity to cope with adversity. In so doing, it emphasizes the resilience, humanity and potential of children affected - rather than 'afflicted' - by armed conflict. The Research Handbook on Child Soldiers will be of interest to academics, practitioners and activists alike, with its extensive incorporation of cutting-edge fieldwork and the voices of the children themselves. Promoting equity between generations, this Handbook will also appeal to individuals from many walks of life who are concerned with the rights of the child in times of conflict, peace, and the in-between.

Providing a much-needed study of the weapons paradox in the case of autonomous weapons, this book is a detailed and comprehensive account of the current debate over the use of autonomous weapons - should some form of regulation be applied or a total ban be enforced? How can compliance with existing rules be ensured? Can responsibility be properly allocated? To what extent do concepts such as 'human dignity' and 'humanity' provide legal guidance in coping with technology? This book tackles these momentous challenges and strives to provide sound answers by elaborating on international law and proposing normative solutions for current and future human-machine interactions in this critical field. Diego Mauri expertly explains the complex new technological research involved in autonomous weaponry, with particular focus on technological developments that have elicited intense debates among diplomats, military experts, scientists, philosophers, and international lawyers. Providing innovative and original discussion of the effective protection of the human person in international law, this book will be welcomed by legal scholars, human rights lawyers, and researchers concerned with the relationship between international law and technology.

The permanent five (P5) members of the United Nations Security Council ? China, France, Russia, the UK, and the USA - have a firm duty to prevent genocide in light of the due diligence standard under conventional, customary, and peremptory international law. This perceptive book explores the positive obligations of these states to act both within and without the Security Council context to prevent or suppress imminent or on-going genocide. John Heieck successfully argues why the duty to prevent genocide is not only a customary, but also an absolute norm of international law, and analyses the scope of the due diligence standard regarding the duty to prevent genocide. In doing so, he considers the ramifications of this on the actions of the P5 members of the Security Council, both within and outside of this eminent body. Significantly, Heieck proposes a legal test for identifying jus cogens norms, and explores the effect of these on the actions and omissions of specifically identified members of the United Nations (UN). Topical and insightful, A Duty to Prevent Genocide will be an important read for both academics and students of international law and politics who wish to further understand the legal nature of the duty of the P5 members to prevent genocide. It will also provide valuable insights for policymakers of the P5 member states.

The Advanced Introduction by Robert Kolb to IHL is a concise and brilliantly written journey through the most challenging aspects of the contemporary laws of war: the distinction between international and non-international armed conflicts, between combatants, fighters and civilians in asymmetric warfare and the so-called 'war on terror', the complex relationship between IHL and international human rights law, the geographical scope of the battlefield in times of cyber warfare and targeted killings by armed drones.' - Manfred Nowak, Vienna University, Austria and Former UN Special Rapporteur on Torture'A fascinating and inspiring presentation and discussion of the most crucial and controversial features of international humanitarian law with respect to its application in contemporary armed conflicts' - Professor Fausto Pocar, President, International Institute of Humanitarian Law, Sanremo, Italy and Judge and Former President, ICTY, The Hague, the Netherlands 'Robert Kolb considers that this is not an introduction for the beginner. Indeed, those seeking a descriptive summary of all the rules of humanitarian law should consult another book or the applicable conventions. For all others, however, this also an inductive, refreshing, committed, yet nuanced introduction, focusing in depth on a few, central issues, and written by one who does not only master this branch of international law, but also the relevant legal, political and historical contexts.'- Marco Sassoli, University of Geneva, Switzerland Elgar Advanced Introductions are stimulating and thoughtful introductions to major fields in the social sciences and law, expertly written by the world's leading scholars. Designed to be accessible yet rigorous, they offer concise and lucid surveys of the substantive and policy issues associated with discrete subject areas. This innovative book provides a thought-provoking introduction to international humanitarian law. Robert Kolb explores the field through questions - which are at times challenging and controversial - in order to get to the very essence of the subject and give a fresh perspective. The result is an exposition both of the law as it stands, through its written and unwritten rules, and also of the uncertainties, gaps, controversies and practical problems which have arisen. IHL is revealed as a living tool, an ever-adapting means to an ever-remaining need of protection during times of armed conflict. Key features include: - Focus on key questions, exploring the whole system of law and its practical working - Covers the main principles, sources of law and implementation - Leads the reader to think through the topic - Concise and accessible, whilst taking a rigorous approach. Reflecting on current questions regarding the structure of the law, this concise and readable book offers a thought-provoking view of the system as a whole and its practical working. It covers the main principles, applicability issues and implementation of humanitarian law, as well as shedding light on the challenges ahead. This thoughtful introduction will provide unique insights for academics, advanced students, government officials and practitioners interested in the legal construction of international humanitarian law.

In August 1945 Great Britain, France, the USSR, and the United States established a tribunal at Nuremberg to try military and civilian leaders of the Nazi regime. G. M. Gilbert, the prison psychologist, had an unrivaled firsthand opportunity to watch and question the Nazi war criminals. With scientific dispassion he encouraged Goeering, Speer, Hess, Ribbentrop, Frank, Jodl, Keitel, Streicher, and the others to reveal their innermost thoughts. In the process Gilbert exposed what motivated them to create the distorted Aryan utopia and the nightmarish worlds of Auschwitz, Dachau, and Buchenwald. Here are their day-to-day reactions to the trial proceedings their off-the-record opinions of Hitler, the Third Reich, and each other their views on slave labour, death camps, and the Jews their testimony, feuds, and desperate maneuverings to dissociate themselves from the Third Reich's defeat and Nazi guilt. Dr. Gilbert's thorough knowledge of German, deliberately informal approach, and complete freedom of access at all times to the defendants give his spellbinding, chilling study an intimacy and insight that remains unequaled.

The practice of armed conflict has changed radically in the last decade. With eminent contributors from legal, government and military backgrounds, this Research Handbook addresses the legal implications of remote warfare and its significance for combatants, civilians, policymakers and international lawyers. Primarily focused on the legality of all forms of remote warfare, including targeted killings by drone, cyber-attacks, and autonomous weapons, each chapter gives a compelling insight beyond the standard and reactionary criticisms of these technologies. Current assumptions of remote warfare are challenged and discussed from a variety of international perspectives. These include governing the use of force, humanitarian law, criminal law, and human rights law. Contributors consider the essential features of current warfare regulations, and test their strength for controlling these new technologies. Suggestions are made for the future development of law to control the limits of modern remote warfare, with a particular focus on the possibility of autonomous weapons. This is an essential read for academics and students of jus ad bellum, international humanitarian law, criminal law and human rights. Students of political science, governance and military studies will also find this a thought-provoking insight into modern warfare techniques and the complex legal issues they create. Contributors include: W. Banks, G. Corn, E. Crawford, A. Cullen, L. Davies-Bright, G. Gaggioli, R. Geiss, T.D. Gill, R. Heinsch, I.S. Henderson, P. Keane, M. Klamberg, H. Lahmann, J. Liddy, P. Margulies, M.W. Meier, J.D. Ohlin, M. Roorda, J. van Haaster, N. White

The law on the use of force in relation to the maintenance of international peace remains one of the most important areas of international law and international relations to date. Rather than simply provide another factual account of the law in this area, this detailed and analytical book seeks to explore its normative aspects. Rooted in public international law, the book provides insight into the historical evolution and sociological environment of this particular branch of law. The competences and practice of the UN and of regional organizations in maintaining peace are examined before the focus is shifted to the inter-State level, the main non-use of force rule and its claimed or recognized exceptions. Robert Kolb analyses each of these rules separately, before concluding with insightful reflections on the current state-of-play and considerations for future developments. Inquiring, yet practical, this book will appeal to students and scholars studying both international law and international relations, particularly with regard to peace and conflict. It will also be of interest to government officials working in the field.

Providing up-to-date discussions of both evolving and novel debates in human rights law and humanitarian law, this timely new edition of the Research Handbook on Human Rights and Humanitarian Law complements, rather than replaces, its predecessor with fresh perspectives from leading scholars on the controversial and crucial topics within these fields. Examining the application of international law to armed conflict situations, contributors present contemporary reflections on a variety of issues that have evolved and emerged in recent years. Chapters integrate a multitude of converging and diverging perspectives on international law in armed conflict, giving voice to stakeholders from academic, humanitarian, judicial, and military backgrounds. Grounded in the results from extensive cutting-edge research on various topics pertaining to the interplay between human rights law and humanitarian law, this Research Handbook illuminates the role of international law in topics such as counterterrorism, tribunals, detention and detainee transfer, sexual and gender-based violence, and torture. Breaking down major and recent international and domestic jurisprudence in an accessible format, this Research Handbook will prove invaluable to students and scholars of human rights and international humanitarian law. With practical examples, it will also act as a useful reference guide to practitioners and humanitarian workers in the field.

This book provides a clear and concise explanation of the central principles of international humanitarian law (or the law of armed conflict) while situating them in a broader philosophical, ethical and legal context. The authors consider a range of wider issues relevant to international humanitarian law, including its ethical foundations, relationship to other bodies of international law and contemporary modes of enforcement. This helps to develop a richer context for understanding the law of war and a sound basis for examining the changing nature of contemporary armed conflict. The book also discusses important recent decisions by international courts and tribunals, tracks the historical development of humanitarian principles in warfare and considers the legal position of states, individuals and non-state groups. Principles of International Humanitarian Law is an important resource for students of international humanitarian law and International law academics, as well as international humanitarian law practitioners. Contents: Preface 1. The Concept of Armed Conflict 2. Sources of International Humanitarian Law 3. Means and Methods of Warfare 4. Protection of Civilians 5. Protection of Combatants Hors de Combat 6. Humanitarianism and Human Rights 7. Liability of States and Non-State Groups 8. Liability of Individuals Index

The law on the use of force in relation to the maintenance of international peace remains one of the most important areas of international law and international relations to date. Rather than simply provide another factual account of the law in this area, this detailed and analytical book seeks to explore its normative aspects. Rooted in public international law, the book provides insight into the historical evolution and sociological environment of this particular branch of law. The competences and practice of the UN and of regional organizations in maintaining peace are examined before the focus is shifted to the inter-State level, the main non-use of force rule and its claimed or recognized exceptions. Robert Kolb analyses each of these rules separately, before concluding with insightful reflections on the current state-of-play and considerations for future developments. Inquiring, yet practical, this book will appeal to students and scholars studying both international law and international relations, particularly with regard to peace and conflict. It will also be of interest to government officials working in the field.

This book conducts a gendered critique of the 'principle of distinction' in international humanitarian law (IHL), with a focus on recent conflicts in Africa. The 'principle of distinction' is core to IHL, and regulates who can and cannot be targeted in armed conflict. It states that civilians may not be targeted in attack, while combatants and those civilians directly participating in hostilities can be. The law defines what it means to be a combatant and a civilian, and sets out what behaviour constitutes direct participation. Close examination of the origins of the principle reveals that IHL was based on a gendered view of conflict, which envisages men as fighters and women as victims of war. Problematically, this view often does not accord with the reality in 'new wars' today in which women are playing increasingly active roles, often forming the backbone of fighting groups, and performing functions on which armed groups are highly reliant. Using women's participation in 'new wars' in Africa as a study, this volume critically examines the principle through a gendered lens, questioning the extent to which the principle serves to protect women in modern conflicts and how it fails them. By doing so, it questions whether the principle of distinction is suitable to effectively regulate the conduct of hostilities in new wars. This book will be of much interest to students of international law, gender studies, African politics, war and conflict studies, and international relations.

The exact legacies of the two Hague Peace Conferences remain unclear. On the one hand, diplomatic and military historians, who cast their gaze to 1914, traditionally dismiss the events of 1899 and 1907 as insignificant footnotes on the path to the First World War. On the other, experts in international law posit that The Hague's foremost legacy lies in the manner in which the conferences progressed the law of war and the concept and application of international justice. This volume brings together some of the latest scholarship on the legacies of the Hague Peace Conferences in a comprehensive volume, drawing together an international team of contributors.

Over recent decades, international humanitarian law has been shaped by the omnipresence of so-called expert manuals. Astute and engaging, this discerning book provides a comprehensive account of these black letter rules and commentaries produced by private expert groups and demonstrates why the general acceptance of these expert manuals is largely unjustified. This theoretically grounded book bridges the divide between theory and practice by linking legal theory to the doctrinal and practical concerns of the laws of war. The author innovatively links interdisciplinary insights to the needs of military lawyers in practice, showing the pitfalls of relying on private manuals as arguable restatements and interpretations of the law 'as it is'. At the same time, he explains why expert processes are so successful and why this should be of concern to all of us. Stimulating and challenging, this book will prove essential reading for students and scholars of public international law, legal theory, and those focussing on the laws of war more specifically. Its practical approach will also greatly benefit legal practitioners working in the field of military law.

The practice of armed conflict has changed radically in the last decade. With eminent contributors from legal, government and military backgrounds, this Research Handbook addresses the legal implications of remote warfare and its significance for combatants, civilians, policymakers and international lawyers. Primarily focused on the legality of all forms of remote warfare, including targeted killings by drone, cyber-attacks, and autonomous weapons, each chapter gives a compelling insight beyond the standard and reactionary criticisms of these technologies. Current assumptions of remote warfare are challenged and discussed from a variety of international perspectives. These include governing the use of force, humanitarian law, criminal law, and human rights law. Contributors consider the essential features of current warfare regulations, and test their strength for controlling these new technologies. Suggestions are made for the future development of law to control the limits of modern remote warfare, with a particular focus on the possibility of autonomous weapons. This is an essential read for academics and students of jus ad bellum, international humanitarian law, criminal law and human rights. Students of political science, governance and military studies will also find this a thought-provoking insight into modern warfare techniques and the complex legal issues they create. Contributors include: W. Banks, G. Corn, E. Crawford, A. Cullen, L. Davies-Bright, G. Gaggioli, R. Geiss, T.D. Gill, R. Heinsch, I.S. Henderson, P. Keane, M. Klamberg, H. Lahmann, J. Liddy, P. Margulies, M.W. Meier, J.D. Ohlin, M. Roorda, J. van Haaster, N. White

Civil wars have formed the vast majority of all armed conflicts since the Second World War. These civil wars have often been accompanied by the intervention of foreign states in favour of one or more of the parties. Such interventions raise various general questions regarding conflict classification in international humanitarian law (IHL), which are important because the relevant law that applies is shaped by whether a conflict is classified as international or non-international. This book provides a thorough examination of the theoretical basis of classification of conflicts in IHL, with special focus on the legal impact of armed foreign intervention in civil wars. Noam Zamir enriches the discourse on IHL by providing an in-depth doctrinal examination of issues concerning conflict classification and examining recent civil wars with foreign interventions, such as the Libyan civil war (2011), Mali civil war (2012-2015) and the ongoing civil war in Yemen, and identifying potential solutions to different lacunae in this field. The issue of conflict classification has significant practical ramifications and this book will have a wide and varied readership, including legal scholars, law students and governmental and military lawyers.

'Anyone interested in the future of autocracy should buy it' Anne Applebaum, author of Twilight of Demoracy **Shortlisted for the Moore Prize for Human Rights Literature** A devastating account of China's genocide of the Uyghurs, by a leading Uyghur activist and Time #100 nominee Nury Turkel was born in a 're-education' camp in China at the height of the Cultural Revolution. He spent the first several months of his life in captivity with his mother, who was beaten and starved while pregnant with him, whilst his father served a penal sentence in an agricultural labour camp. Following this traumatic start - and not without a heavy dose of good fortune - he was later able to travel to the US for his undergraduate studies in 1995 and was granted asylum in the country in 1998 where, as a lawyer, he is now a tireless and renowned activist for the plight of his people. Part memoir, part call-to-action, No Escape will be the first major book to tell the story of the Chinese government's terrible oppression of the Uyghur people from the inside, detailing the labour camps, ethnic and religious oppression, forced sterilisation of women and the surveillance tech that have made Xinjiang - in the words of one Uyghur who managed to flee - 'a police surveillance state unlike any the world has ever known'.

This book seeks to refine our understanding of transitional justice and peacebuilding, and long-term security and reintegration challenges after violent conflicts. As recent events following political change during the so-called 'Arab Spring' demonstrate, demands for accountability often follow or attend conflict and political transition. While traditionally much literature and many practitioners highlighted tensions between peacebuilding and justice, recent research and practice demonstrates a turn away from the supposed 'peace vs justice' dilemma. This volume examines the complex relationship between peacebuilding and transitional justice through the lenses of the increased emphasis on victim-centred approaches to justice and the widespread practices of disarmament, demobilization, and reintegration (DDR) of excombatants. While recent volumes have sought to address either DDR or victim-centred approaches to justice, none has sought to make connections between the two, much less to place them in the larger context of the increasing linkages between transitional justice and peacebuilding. This book will be of great interest to students of transitional justice, peacebuilding, human rights, war and conflict studies, security studies and IR.