This book sets out for the first time in English and in the terms of modern logic the semantics of the Port Royal Logic (La Logique ou l'Art de penser, 1662-1685) of Antoine Arnauld and Pierre Nicole, perhaps the most influential logic book in the 17th and 18th centuries. Its goal is to explain how the Logic reworks the foundation of pre-Cartesian logic so as to make it compatible with Descartes' metaphysics. The Logic's authors forged a new theory of reference based on the medieval notion of objective being, which is essentially the modern notion of intentional content. Indeed, the book's central aim is to detail how the Logic reoriented semantics so that it centered on the notion of intentional content. This content, which the Logic calls comprehension, consists of an idea's defining modes. Mechanisms are defined in terms of comprehension that rework earlier explanations of central notions like conceptual inclusion, signification, abstraction, idea restriction, sensation, and most importantly within the Logic's metatheory, the concept of idea-extension, which is a new technical concept coined by the Logic. Although Descartes is famous for rejecting "Aristotelianism," he says virtually nothing about technical concepts in logic. His followers fill the gap. By putting to use the doctrine of objective being, which had been a relatively minor part of medieval logic, they preserve more central semantic doctrines, especially a correspondence theory of truth. A recurring theme of the book is the degree to which the Logic hews to medieval theory. This interpretation is at odds with what has become a standard reading among French scholars according to which this 16th-century work should be understood as rejecting earlier logic along with Aristotelian metaphysics, and as putting in its place structures more like those of 19th-century class theory.

Were the most serious philosophers of the millennium 200 A.D. to 1200 A.D. just confused mystics? This book shows otherwise. John Martin rehabilitates Neoplatonism, founded by Plotinus and brought into Christianity by St. Augustine. The Neoplatonists devise ranking predicates like good, excellent, perfect to divide the Chain of Being, and use the predicate intensifier hyper so that it becomes a valid logical argument to reason from God is not (merely) good to God is hyper-good. In this way the relational facts underlying reality find expression in Aristotle's subject-predicate statements, and the Platonic tradition proves able to subsume Aristotle's logic while at the same time rejecting his metaphysics. In the Middle Ages when Aristotle's larger philosophy was recovered and joined again to the Neoplatonic tradition which was never lost, Neoplatonic logic lived along side Aristotle's metaphysics in a sometime confusing and unsettled way. Showing Neoplatonism to be significantly richer in its logical and philosophical ideas than it is usually given credit for, this book will be of interest not just to historians of logic, but to philosophers, logicians, linguists, and theologians.

This book sets out for the first time in English and in the terms of modern logic the semantics of the Port Royal Logic (La Logique ou l'Art de penser, 1662-1685) of Antoine Arnauld and Pierre Nicole, perhaps the most influential logic book in the 17th and 18th centuries. Its goal is to explain how the Logic reworks the foundation of pre-Cartesian logic so as to make it compatible with Descartes' metaphysics. The Logic's authors forged a new theory of reference based on the medieval notion of objective being, which is essentially the modern notion of intentional content. Indeed, the book's central aim is to detail how the Logic reoriented semantics so that it centered on the notion of intentional content. This content, which the Logic calls comprehension, consists of an idea's defining modes. Mechanisms are defined in terms of comprehension that rework earlier explanations of central notions like conceptual inclusion, signification, abstraction, idea restriction, sensation, and most importantly within the Logic's metatheory, the concept of idea-extension, which is a new technical concept coined by the Logic. Although Descartes is famous for rejecting "Aristotelianism," he says virtually nothing about technical concepts in logic. His followers fill the gap. By putting to use the doctrine of objective being, which had been a relatively minor part of medieval logic, they preserve more central semantic doctrines, especially a correspondence theory of truth. A recurring theme of the book is the degree to which the Logic hews to medieval theory. This interpretation is at odds with what has become a standard reading among French scholars according to which this 16th-century work should be understood as rejecting earlier logic along with Aristotelian metaphysics, and as putting in its place structures more like those of 19th-century class theory.

Were the most serious philosophers of the millennium 200 A.D. to 1200 A.D. just confused mystics? This book shows otherwise. John Martin rehabilitates Neoplatonism, founded by Plotinus and brought into Christianity by St. Augustine. The Neoplatonists devise ranking predicates like good, excellent, perfect to divide the Chain of Being, and use the predicate intensifier hyper so that it becomes a valid logical argument to reason from God is not (merely) good to God is hyper-good. In this way the relational facts underlying reality find expression in Aristotle's subject-predicate statements, and the Platonic tradition proves able to subsume Aristotle's logic while at the same time rejecting his metaphysics. In the Middle Ages when Aristotle's larger philosophy was recovered and joined again to the Neoplatonic tradition which was never lost, Neoplatonic logic lived along side Aristotle's metaphysics in a sometime confusing and unsettled way. Showing Neoplatonism to be significantly richer in its logical and philosophical ideas than it is usually given credit for, this book will be of interest not just to historians of logic, but to philosophers, logicians, linguists, and theologians.

Botany for Agricultural Students
By John N. Martin
Contents
Introduction
--I--The Nature and Subdivisions of Botany
--II--A General View of Plants
Part I: Plants (Chiefly Seed Plants), as to Structures and Functions
--III--Flowers General characteristics and structure of flowers; Some particular forms of flowers; Arrangement of flowers or inflorescence]
--IV--Pistils and Stamens Structure and function of pistils and stamens; Pollination]
--V--Seeds and Fruits Nature and structure of seeds; Resting period, vitality, and longevity of seeds; Purity and analysis of seeds; Nature and types of fruits of Flowering Plants; dissemination of seeds and fruits]
--VI--Germination of Seeds; Seedlings Nature of germination and factors upon which it depends; Germinative processes; Testing the germinative capacity of seeds; Seedlings]
--VII--Cells and Tissues Structure and function of cells; Respiration; Cell multiplication; General view of tissues]
--VIII--Roots General features of roots; Root structure; Factors influencing the direction of growth in roots; The soil as the home of roots; Water, air, and parasitic roots; Propagation by roots]
--IX--Stems Characteristic features and types of stems; General structure of stems; Structure of monocotyledonous stems; Structure of herbaceous dicotyledonous stems; Structure of woody stems]
--X--Buds: Growth of Stems; Pruning; Propagation by Stems Buds; Growth of stems; Pruning; Propagation by means of stems]
--XI--Leaves Characteristic features of leaves; Primary and secondary leaves; General structure of leaves; Cellular structure of leaves; The manufacture of food by leaves; Factors influencing photosynthesis; Transpiration from plants; Respiration; Special forms of leaves; Uses of the photosynthetic food]
Part II: Plants as to Kinds, Relationships, Evolution, and Heredity
--XII--Introduction
--XIII--Thallophytes Algae]
--XIV--Thallophytes Myxomycetes]
--XV--Thallophytes Fungi]
--XVI--Bryophytes Liverworts and Mosses]
--XVII--Pteridophytes Filicales; Horsetails; Club Mosses; Ferns]
--XVIII--Spermatophytes Gymnosperms; Cycads; Pines]
--XIX--Spermatophytes Angiosperms]
--XX--Classification of Angiosperms and some of Their Families of Most Economic Importance Dicotyledons; Monocotyledons]
--XXI--Ecological classification of plants
--XXII--Evolution
--XXIII--Heredity
--XXIV--Plant Breeding
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