Despite the growth in international criminal courts and tribunals, the majority of cases concerning international criminal law are prosecuted at the domestic level. This means that both international and domestic courts have to contend with a plethora of relevant, but often contradictory, judgments by international institutions and by other domestic courts. This book provides a detailed investigation into the impact this pluralism has had on international criminal law and procedure, and examines the key problems which arise from it. The work identifies the various interpretations of the concept of pluralism and discusses how it manifests in a broad range of aspects of international criminal law and practice. These include substantive jurisdiction, the definition of crimes, modes of individual criminal responsibility for international crimes, sentencing, fair trial rights, law of evidence, truth-finding, and challenges faced by both international and domestic courts in gathering, testing and evaluating evidence.
Authored by leading practitioners and academics in the field, the book employs pluralism as a methodological tool to advance the debate beyond the classic view of 'legal pluralism' leading to a problematic fragmentation of the international legal order. It argues instead that pluralism is a fundamental and indispensable feature of international criminal law which permeates it on several levels: through multiple legal regimes and enforcement fora, diversified sources and interpretations of concepts, and numerous identities underpinning the law and practice. The book addresses the virtues and dangers of pluralism, reflecting on the need for, and prospects of, harmonization of international criminal law around a common grammar. It ultimately brings together the theories of legal pluralism, the comparative law discourse on legal transplants, harmonization, and convergence, and the international legal debate on fragmentation to show where pluralism and divergence will need to be accepted as regular, and even beneficial, features of international criminal justice.

International arbitration is a remarkably resilient institution, but many unresolved and largely unacknowledged ethical quandaries lurk below the surface. Globalisation of commercial trade has increased the number and diversity of parties, counsel, experts and arbitrators, which has in turn lead to more frequent ethical conflicts just as procedures have become more formal and transparent. The predictable result is that ethical transgressions are increasingly evident and less tolerable. Despite these developments, regulation of various actors in the systemarbitrators, lawyers, experts, third-party funders and arbitral institutionsremains ambiguous and often ineffectual. Ethics in International Arbitration systematically analyses the causes and effects of these developments as they relate to the professional conduct of arbitrators, counsel, experts, and third-party funders in international commercial and investment arbitration. This work proposes a model for effective ethical self-regulation, meaning regulation of professional conduct at an international level and within existing arbitral procedures and structures. The work draws on historical developments and current trends to propose analytical frameworks for addressing existing problems and reifying the legitimacy of international arbitration into the future.

The vast majority of all international judicial decisions have been issued since 1990. This increasing activity of international courts over the past two decades is one of the most significant developments within the international law. It has repercussions on all levels of governance and has challenged received understandings of the nature and legitimacy of international courts. It was previously held that international courts are simply instruments of dispute settlement, whose activities are justified by the consent of the states that created them, and in whose name they decide. However, this understanding ignores other important judicial functions, underrates problems of legitimacy, and prevents a full assessment of how international adjudication functions, and the impact that it has demonstrably had. This book proposes a public law theory of international adjudication, which argues that international courts are multifunctional actors who exercise public authority and therefore require democratic legitimacy. It establishes this theory on the basis of three main building blocks: multifunctionality, the notion of an international public authority, and democracy. The book aims to answer the core question of the legitimacy of international adjudication: in whose name do international courts decide? It lays out the specific problem of the legitimacy of international adjudication, and reconstructs the common critiques of international courts. It develops a concept of democracy for international courts that makes it possible to constructively show how their legitimacy is derived. It argues that ultimately international courts make their decisions, even if they do not know it, in the name of the peoples and the citizens of the international community.

This book evaluates the concept of the function of law through the prism of the International Court of Justice. It goes beyond a conventional analysis of the Court's case law and applicable law, to consider the compromise between supranational order and state sovereignty that lies at the heart of its institutional design.
It argues that this compromise prevents the Court from playing a progressive role in the development of international law. Instead, it influences the international legal order in more subtle ways, in particular, in shaping understanding of the nature or form of the international legal order as a whole. The book concludes that the role of the Court is not to advance some universal conception of international law but rather to decide the cases before it in the best possible way within its institutional limits, while remaining aware of law's deeper theoretical foundations.
The book considers three key elements: firstly, it examines the historical aspects of the Court's constitutive Statute, and the manner in which it defines its judicial character. Secondly, it considers the drafting process, the function of a dissenting opinion, and the role of the individual judge, in an attempt to discern insights on the function of the Court. Finally, the book examines the Court's practice in regard to three conceptual issues which assist in understanding the Court's function: its theory of precedent; its definition of the 'international community'; and its theory on the completeness of the international legal order.

The idea of multi-culturalism has had a significant impact across many areas of law. This book explores how it has shaped the recent development of international human rights law. Custodians of human rights, especially international monitoring bodies, try to advance the effectiveness of human rights standards by interpreting these standards according to a method strongly inspired by the idea of cultural 'relativism'. By using elements of cultural identity and cultural diversity as parameters for the interpretation, adjudication, and enforcement of such standards, human rights are evolving from the traditional 'universal' idea, to a 'multi-cultural' one, whereby rights are interpreted in a dynamic manner, which respond to the particular needs of the communities and individuals directly concerned. This book shows how this is epitomized by the rise of collective rights - which is intertwined with the evolution of the rights of minorities and indigenous peoples - in contrast with the traditional vision of human rights as inherently individual. It demonstrates how the process of 'culturalization' of human rights law can be shown through different methods: the most common being the recourse to the doctrine of the 'margin of appreciation' left to states in defining the content of human rights standards, extensively used by human rights bodies, such as the European Court of Human Rights. Secondly, different meanings can be attributed to the same human rights standards by adapting them to the cultural needs of the persons and - especially - communities specifically concerned. This method is particularly used by the Inter-American Court of Human Rights and the African Commission of Human and Peoples' Rights. The book concludes that the evolution of human rights law towards multi-cultural 'relativism' is not only maximizes the effectiveness of human rights standards, but is also necessary to improve the quality of communal life, and to promote the stability of inter-cultural relationships. However, to an extent, notions of 'universalism' remain necessary to defend the very idea of human dignity.

American International Law Cases is an annual case law reporter that provides the full text of U.S. court opinions involving international law issues. The courts covered include all U.S. federal district courts and bankruptcy courts, federal appellate courts, and the U.S. Supreme Court, as well as the U.S. Court of International Trade, other federal specialty courts, and state courts that have decided notable cases. The 2012 edition includes cases of particular significance covering topics such as the Foreign Sovereign Immunities Act (FSIA), habeas corpus, the Torture Victim Protection Act (TVPA), the Convention Against Torture, designation of entities as foreign terrorist organizations, material support for terrorism as a war crime, international arbitration, treaty interpretation, constitutionality of U.S. treaty implementation legislation, head of state immunity, the Hague Convention on the Civil Aspects of International Child Abduction, cross-border insolvency, deportation of undocumented immigrants, and both the act of state doctrine and the political question doctrine. Each edition of AILC also includes an introductory note that reviews the major developments in international law for the given year and explains to readers how to use the volumes, and a subject index to allow for targeted research. The 2012 edition contains 10 volumes with over 200 cases. Included in the 2012 edition are the following key cases: * Holder v. Martinez Gutierrez (S. Ct.) * Kawashima v. Holder (S. Ct.) * Vartelas v. Holder (S. Ct.) * Arizona v. United States (S. Ct.) * Golan v. Holder (S. Ct.) * Mohamad v. Palestinian Authority (S. Ct.) * Zivotofsky ex rel. Zivotofsky v. Clinton (S. Ct.) * Hamdan v. United States (D.C. Cir.) * In re People's Mojahedin Organization of Iran (D.C. Cir.) * Obaydullah v. Obama (D.C. Cir.) * Republic of Argentina v. BG Group PLC (D.C. Cir.) * Konowaloff v. Metropolitan Museum of Art (2d Cir.) * Lozano v. Alvarez (2d Cir.) * United States v. Bond (3d Cir.) * Al Shimari v. CACI Int'l, Inc. (4th Cir.) * ESAB Group, Inc. v. Zurich Insurance PLC (4th Cir.) * Yousuf v. Samantar (4th Cir.) * Larbie v. Larbie (5th Cir.) * Trinidad y Garcia v. Thomas (9th Cir.) * Meza v. U.S. Att'y Gen (11th Cir.)

Over the past twenty years, the volume of international litigation and arbitration has increased exponentially. As the number of new international courts and tribunals has proliferated, the diversity and volume of advocates appearing before the international courts has also increased. With this increase, the ethical standards that apply to counsel have become a growing field of interest to practitioners of public international law. Problems threatening the integrity of the international judicial process and concerns about divergent ethical standards amongst counsel have multiplied in the international judicial system, prompting early attempts by senior members of the 'international bar' to articulate common ethical standards. Professional Ethics at the International Bar examines the question of how to articulate common ethical standards for counsel appearing before international courts and tribunals, and the legal powers and practical ability of international courts to prescribe and enforce such standards. It conducts original research into both the theory and practice of the issues arising from this nascent process of professionalization. Using various sources, including interviews with judges, registrars, and senior practitioners, it argues that the professionalization of advocacy through the articulation of common ethical standards is both desirable and feasible in order to protect the integrity and fairness of the international judicial process.

Investment protection treaties generally provide for the obligation to treat investments fairly and equitably, even if the wording of the rule and its relationship with the customary international standard may differ. The open-textured nature of the rule, the ambiguous relationship between the vague treaty and equally vague customary rules, and States' interpretations of the content and relationship of both rules (not to mention the frequency of successful invocation by investors) make this issue one of the most controversial aspect of investment protection law.
This monograph engages in a comprehensive analysis of the relationship between the international minimum standard and fair and equitable treatment. It provides an original argument about the historical development of the international standard, a normative rationale for reading it into the treaty rules of fair and equitable treatment, and a coherent methodology for establishing the content of this standard.
The first part of this book untangles the history of both the international minimum standard and fair and equitable treatment. The second part addresses the normative framework within which the contemporary debate takes place. After an exhaustive review of all relevant sources, it is argued that the most persuasive reading of fair and equitable treatment is that it always makes a reference to customary law. The third part of the book builds on the historical analysis and the normative framework, explaining the content of the contemporary standard by careful comparative human rights analysis.

This book provides a complete overview into the work of the International Court of Justice in the last twenty years. Since 1989, the author, a former Principal Legal Secretary to the International Court of Justice, contributed frequent articles on this subject to the British Yearbook of International Law continuing the work begun by Sir Gerald Fitzmaurice in 1950. This work brings together these articles in one place for the first time, with extensive cross-references, and a thorough index and tables, making it more accessible than ever. This collection addresses all of the areas of international law that the International Court of Justice has addressed with depth and nuance. The topics considered include general principles of law, sources of law, treaty interpretation, substantive issues such as the law of the sea, state sovereignty, and state responsibility, questions of jurisdiction and competence, and questions of the Court's procedure. A comprehensive work of incredible detail, this collection is essential reading for those studying the law and procedure of the International Court of Justice, and its role at the heart of the international legal system, as well as for practitioners appearing before the Court.

Investment arbitration has become the primary means of settling disputes between states and foreign investors. The majority of those arbitration proceedings take place before tribunals of the International Centre for the Settlement of Investment Disputes (ICSID). This book provides the reader with a reliable reference guide containing concise summaries of the facts and holdings of ICSID Tribunals in the years 1974-2002. This period saw some of the most controversial and interesting ICSID awards and decisions, such as those in the Tradex, Metalclad, and Salini cases. This jurisprudence has significantly influenced the application of the ICSID Convention and been the subject of much scholarly debate. The summaries provide quick access to the details of the case, removing the need to read the full text of the award or decision until its relevance is known. Extensive cross-references and footnotes allow easy navigation and facilitate in-depth research by giving a valuable starting point. The book also includes analytical chapters tracing the development of procedural and substantive issues and assessing the 'precedent' value of the decisions. By analysing the awards and decisions in the light of subsequent developments, the authors also identify those which have withstood the test of time.

International criminal justice has undergone rapid recent development. Since the establishment of the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia (ICTY) in 1993, and the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda (ICTR) in the following year, the field has changed beyond recognition. The traditional immunity of presidents or heads of government, prime ministers, and other functionaries acting in an official capacity no longer prevails; the doctrine of superior orders is inapplicable except, where appropriate, as in mitigation; and the gap between international armed conflict and non-international armed conflict has closed. More generally, the bridge has been crossed between the irresponsibility of the state and the criminal responsibility of the individual. As a result, the traditional impunity of the state has practically gone. This book, by one of the former judges of the ICTY, ICTR, and the International Court of Justice, assesses some of the workings of the ICTY that have shaped these developments. In it, Judge Shahabuddeen provides an insightful overview of the nature of this criminal court, established on behalf of the whole of the international community. He reflects on its transformation into one of the leading fora for the growth of international criminal law first-hand, offering a unique perspective on the challenges it has faced. Judge Shahabuddeen's experience in international criminal justice makes this volume essential reading for those interested in, or working with, international criminal law.

Many international norms that have emerged in recent years are not set out in formal treaties. They are not concluded in formal international organizations. They frequently involve actors other than formal state representatives. In the realm of finance, health, security, or the environment, international lawmaking is increasingly 'informal': It takes place in networks or loosely organized fora; it involves a multitude of stakeholders including regulators, experts, professional organizations and other non-state actors; it leads to guidelines, standards or best practices. This book critically assesses the concept of informal international lawmaking, its legal nature, and impact at the national and international level. It examines whether it is on the rise, as is often claimed, and if so, what the implications of this are. It addresses what actors are involved in its creation, the processes utilized, and the informal output produced. The book frames informal international lawmaking around three axes: output informality (novel types of norms), process informality (norm-making in networks outside international organizations), and actor informality (the involvement of public agencies and regulators, private actors, and international organizations). Fundamentally, the book is concerned with whether this informality causes problems in terms of keeping transnational lawmaking accountable. By empirically analysing domestic processes of norm elaboration and implementation, the book addresses the key question of how to benefit from the effectiveness of informal international lawmaking without jeopardizing the accountability necessary in the process of making law.

Arbitration of International Business Disputes 2nd edition is a fully revised and updated anthology of essays by Rusty Park, a leading scholar in international arbitration and a sought-after arbitrator for both commercial and investment treaty cases. This collection focuses on controversial questions in arbitration of trade, financial, and investment disputes.
The essays address some of the most interesting topics in cross-border business dispute resolution, many of which have endured over several decades and remain subject to radically different views. Examples include the proper role of judicial review, the allocation of jurisdictional tasks, evolution of arbitration's statutory and treaty framework, free trade and bilateral investment agreements, and the balance between fixed rules and arbitral discretion.
The book is structured around three themes: arbitration's legal framework; the conduct of arbitral proceedings; and a comparison of arbitration in specific fields such as finance, intellectual property, and taxation. In each of these areas, analysis includes the tensions between fairness and efficiency, and the accurate application of substantive law as well as the implications of mandatory procedural norms.
Augmented by more than a dozen new contributions and a revised introduction, this 2nd edition retains all of its earlier practical and scholarly relevance, and includes a Foreword by V. V. (Johnny) Veeder QC.

Challenging the classic narrative that sovereign states make the law that constrains them, this book argues that treaties and other sources of international law form only the starting point of legal authority. Interpretation can shift the meaning of texts and, in its own way, make law. In the practice of interpretation actors debate the meaning of the written and customary laws, and so contribute to the making of new law. In such cases it is the actor's semantic authority that is key - the capacity for their interpretation to be accepted and become established as new reference points for legal discourse. The book identifies the practice of interpretation as a significant space for international lawmaking, using the key examples of the UN High Commissioner for Refugees and the Appellate Body of the WTO to show how international institutions are able to shape and develop their constituent instruments by adding layers of interpretation, and moving the terms of discourse. The book applies developments in linguistics to the practice of international legal interpretation, building on semantic pragmatism to overcome traditional explanations of lawmaking and to offer a fresh account of how the practice of interpretation makes international law. It discusses the normative implications that arise from viewing interpretation in this light, and the implications that the importance of semantic changes has for understanding the development of international law. The book tests the potential of international law and its doctrine to respond to semantic change, and ultimately ponders how semantic authority can be justified democratically in a normative pluriverse.

The margin of appreciation is a judicial doctrine whereby international courts allow states to have a measure of diversity in their interpretation of human rights treaty obligations. The doctrine is at the heart of some of the most important international human rights decisions. Does it undermine the universality of human rights? How should judges decide whether to give this margin of appreciation to states? How can lawyers make best use of arguments for or against the margin of appreciation?
This book answers these questions, and broadens the discussion on the margin of appreciation by including material beyond the ECHR system. It provides a comprehensive justification of the doctrine, and catalogues the key cases affecting the doctrine in practice.
Part One provides a systematic defence of the margin of appreciation doctrine in international human rights law. Drawing on the philosophy of practical reasoning the book argues that the margin of appreciation is a doctrine of judicial deference and is a common and appropriate feature of adjudication. The book argues that the margin of appreciation doctrine prevents courts from imposing unhelpful uniformity, whilst allowing decisions to be consistent with the universality of human rights. Part Two considers the key case law of the European Court of Human Rights, the Inter-American Court of Human Rights, and the UN Human Rights Committee, documenting the margin of appreciation in practice. The analysis uniquely takes a broad look at the factors affecting the margin of appreciation. Part Three explores how the margin of appreciation operates in the judicial decision-making process, reconceptualising the proportionality assessment and explaining how the nature of the right and the type of case affect the courts' reasoning.

With the ad hoc tribunals completing their mandates and the International Criminal Court under significant pressure, today's international criminal jurisdictions are at a critical juncture. Their legitimacy cannot be taken for granted. This multidisciplinary volume investigates key issues pertaining to legitimacy: criminal accountability, normative development, truth-discovery, complementarity, regionalism, and judicial cooperation. The volume sheds new light on previously unexplored areas, including the significance of redacted judgements, prosecutors' opening statements, rehabilitative processes of international convicts, victim expectations, court financing, and NGO activism. The book's original contributions will appeal to researchers, practitioners, advocates, and students of international criminal justice, accountability for war crimes and the rule of law.

A practical reference on the EU rules and international initiatives that impact directly on EU cross-border disputes, this handbook is a must-have for any practitioner of cross-border mediation. The EU Mediation Directive 2008/52/EC laid down obligations on EU Member States to encourage quality of mediators and providers across specific compliance considerations, including codes of conduct and training, court referral, enforceability of mediated settlements, confidentiality of mediation, the effect of mediation on limitation periods, and encouraging public information. The book is organized into clear and consistent themes, structured and numbered in a common format to provide easily accessible provisions and commentary across the essential considerations of the Directive. All EU countries which have complied, along with Denmark (which opted out of implementing the Directive), or attempted to comply, with the Directive are included, allowing straightforward comparison of key issues across the different countries in this important and evolving area. Supplementary points of practical use, such as statistics on the success rates of mediation and advice on the requirements for parties to participate in mediation, and for parties and lawyers to consider mediation, add further value to the jurisdiction-specific commentary. A comparative table of the mediation laws forms an invaluable quick-reference appendix for an overview and comparison of the information of each jurisdiction, together with English translations of each country's mediation law or legislative provisions. Address this dynamic area of law with the benefit of guidance across all elements of the Directive impacting practice, provided by respected and experienced editors from the knowledgeable European authority in mediation, ADR Center, along with a host of expert contributors.

This volume examines the prosecution as an institution and a function in a dozen international and hybrid criminal tribunals, from Nuremberg to the International Criminal Court. It is the result of a sustained collaborative effort among some twenty scholars and (former) tribunal staffers. The starting point is that the prosecution shapes a tribunal's practice and legacy more than any other organ and that a systematic examination of international prosecutors is therefore warranted.
The chapters are organized chronologically, according to the successive phases of the life of the institution and the various stages of the trials. The analysis includes each institution's establishment, mandate and jurisdiction, as well as the prosecutorial framework and strategy, the prosecutor's external relations and the completion of the institution's work. The book also considers the prosecutors' independence and impartiality, and their accountability for their decisions. The volume thus provides a comprehensive picture of the mandate, organization, and operation of the prosecution in international criminal trials.
As the first comprehensive study of an international legal actor whose decisions have widespread political repercussions, this book will be essential reading for all with an interest in international criminal justice.

This book sets out and analyses the procedural law applied by international criminal tribunals and the International Criminal Court (ICC). It traces the development of international criminal procedure from its roots in the International Military Tribunal at Nuremberg to its current application by the Yugoslav and Rwanda Tribunals, the Special Court for Sierra Leone, the Extraordinary Chamber in the Courts of Cambodia, and the International Criminal Court. All of these tribunals apply a different set of rules. The focus of this book, however, lies on the ICC and its procedural regime as contained in the Rome Statute, the Rules of Procedure and Evidence, and the different Regulations of the Court and of the Prosecutor. The exceptional compromise between common and civil law which formed the basis of the ICC's Statute created a unique procedural order. This book systematically analyses the Court's organisational structure, overall procedural setting, and the individual procedural regulations, and compares and contrasts these to other international criminal tribunals. Amongst the many unresolved procedural issues are the rights of the accused before, during, and after the trial, the disclosure of evidence, the presentation of evidence, the participation of victims, the protection of witnesses, and the cooperation between the ICC and individual states. Through looking at these issues, the book develops a concise and fitting theoretical underpinning for the ICC's procedural order that is not founded on any specific legal culture.

This book examines the concept of individual criminal responsibility for serious violations of international law, i.e. aggression, genocide, crimes against humanity and war crimes. Such crimes are rarely committed by single individuals. Rather, international crimes generally connote a plurality of offenders, particularly in the execution of the crimes, which are often orchestrated and masterminded by individuals behind the scene of the crimes who can be termed 'intellectual perpetrators'. For a determination of individual guilt and responsibility, a fair assessment of the mutual relationships between those persons is indispensable.
By setting out how to understand and apply concepts such as joint criminal enterprise, superior responsibility, duress, and the defense of superior orders, this work provides a framework for that assessment. It does so by bringing to light the roots of these concepts, which lie not merely in earlier phases of development of international criminal law but also in domestic law and legal doctrine. The book also critically reflects on how criminal responsibility has been developed in the case law of international criminal tribunals and courts. It thus illuminates and analyses the rules on individual responsibility in international law.

The rise of investment arbitration in the last decade has generated an unprecedented body of arbitral case law. The work of these arbitral tribunals has provided scholars and practitioners with public international law jurisprudence, including materials on treaty interpretation which has not yet been thoroughly analysed. This book evaluates the contribution of investment arbitration treaty interpretation jurisprudence to international law, covering all key aspects of treaty interpretation. Included in the book's coverage are awards which feature in prominent discussions or in applications of treaty interpretation rules. Among the significant portion of arbitral awards analysed, which deal with investment treaties, are ICSID awards, ad hoc investment arbitration awards, NAFTA awards, and Energy Charter Treaty awards. The extensive analysis of investment arbitration awards and decisions has also been used to create a table highlighting both the references to principles of treaty interpretation and instances in which they were rejected. This invaluable insight into the practice of investment tribunals will be of interest to both practitioners and academics alike. Foreword by by Professor Michael Reisman, Yale Law School _

One of the most noted developments in international law over the past twenty years is the proliferation of international courts and tribunals. They decide who has the right to exploit natural resources, define the scope of human rights, delimit international boundaries and determine when the use of force is prohibited. As the number and influence of international courts grow, so too do challenges to their legitimacy. This volume provides new interdisciplinary insights into international courts' legitimacy: what drives and undermines the legitimacy of these bodies? How do drivers change depending on the court concerned? What is the link between legitimacy, democracy, effectiveness and justice? Top international experts analyse legitimacy for specific international courts, as well as the links between legitimacy and cross-cutting themes. Failure to understand and respond to legitimacy concerns can endanger both the courts and the law they interpret and apply.

In the second edition of his award-winning book, Harold Abramson offers a framework for representing clients in mediation in the form of his Mediation Representation Triangle that emphasizes knowing how to negotiate effectively, how to enlist mediator assistance, and how to develop a mediation representation plan that meets clients' interests, overcomes impediments, and shares information judiciously. Through his expanded and carefully crafted framework for effective problem-solving advocacy in mediation, he answers such keys questions as: How to select the right mediator? How do you prepare your case and client for mediation? And, what to do as the mediation unfolds? Abramson begins by examining how to be an effective negotiator in mediation including during each mediation stage, opening statements, joint sessions and caucuses. He also gives considerable attention to the various ways mediators can assist participants in the mediation. He then covers advising clients about the mediation option, negotiating an agreement to mediate, preparing cases and clients for the mediation session, and appearing in pre-mediation conferences, mediation sessions, and post-sessions. He also presents alternative processes for resolving issues not settled in mediation. This second edition introduces new material on resolving moneyed disputes, dealing with emotions, sharing information, interviewing mediators and their references, choosing between joint sessions and caucuses, generating movement, proactively enlisting the mediator, searching for creative solutions, and navigating legal issues when drafting agreements. It also includes new approaches to assessing and preparing opening statements and refines the critical techniques for bridging any final gap.

Africa and the ICC: Perceptions of Justice comprises contributions from prominent scholars of different disciplines including international law, political science, cultural anthropology, African history and media studies. This unique collection provides the reader with detailed insights into the interaction between the African Union and the International Criminal Court (ICC), but also looks further at the impact of the ICC at a societal level in African states and examines other justice mechanisms on a local and regional level in these countries. This investigation of the ICC's complicated relationship with Africa allows the reader to see that perceptions of justice are multilayered.

The European Convention on Human Rights underwent a spectacular evolution over the first fifty years of its life. In recent times the European Court of Human Rights has been compared to a quasi-constitutional court for Europe in the field of human rights, and for some time the Convention has been viewed as a European Bill of Rights. The 'coming of age' of the ECHR system in the late 1990's was marked by the entry into force of Protocol 11, creating a new, full time Court.
By contrast those who first proposed a European human rights guarantee were driven by an ambition to put in place a collective pact to prevent the re-emergence of totalitarianism in 'free' Europe. They were motivated by grisly memories of human rights abuse associated with World War Two, and the protection of 'human rights' was seen in that light. When the Convention was opened for signature in 1950 it was viewed by many with skepticism and disappointment. The Convention system took many years to get established. In the mid-1960's doubts were expressed as to whether the Court had a future and in the 1970's the Convention system of control faced a number of serious challenges.
This book examines the story of the evolution of the Convention over its first 50 years (1948-1998). It reflects on the Convention's origins and charts the slow progress that it made over the 1950's and 1960's, before, in the late 1970's, the European Court of Human Rights delivered a series of landmark judgments which proved to be the foundation stones for the European Bill of Rights that we know today.