A vibrant exploration of past and present controversies surrounding control of the world's oceans. In 1609, the Dutch lawyer Hugo Grotius rejected the idea that even powerful rulers could own the oceans. "A ship sailing through the sea," he wrote, "leaves behind it no more legal right than it does a track." A philosophical and legal battle ensued, but Grotius's view ultimately prevailed. To this day, "freedom of the seas" remains an important legal principle and a powerful rhetorical tool. Yet in recent decades, freedom of the seas has eroded in multiple ways and for a variety of reasons. During the world wars of the 20th century, combatants imposed unprecedented restrictions on maritime commerce, leaving international rules in tatters. National governments have steadily expanded their reach into the oceans. More recently, environmental concerns have led to new international restrictions on high seas fishing. Today's most dangerous maritime disputes-including China's push for control of the South China Sea-are occurring against the backdrop of major changes in the way the world treats the oceans. As David Bosco shows in The Poseidon Project, the history of humanity's attempt to create rules for the oceans is alive and relevant. Tracing the roots of the law of the sea and the background to current maritime disputes, he shows that building effective ocean rules while preserving maritime freedoms remains a daunting task. Bosco analyzes how fragile international institutions and determined activists are struggling for relevance in a world still dominated by national governments. As maritime tensions develop, The Poseidon Project will serve as an essential guide to the continuing challenge of ocean governance.

In the context of harmonisation of arbitration law and practice worldwide, to what extent do local legal traditions still influence local arbitration practices, especially at a time when non-Western countries are playing an increasingly important role in international commercial and financial markets? How are the new economic powers reacting to the trend towards harmonisation? China provides a good case study, with its historic tradition of non-confrontational means of dispute resolution now confronting current trends in transnational arbitration. Is China showing signs of adapting to the current trend of transnational arbitration? On the other hand, will Chinese legal culture influence the practice of arbitration in the rest of the world? To address these challenging questions it is necessary to examine the development of arbitration in the context of China's changing cultural and legal structures. Written for international business people, lawyers, academics and students, this book gives the reader a unique insight into arbitration practice in China, based on a combination of theoretical analysis and practical insights. It explains contemporary arbitration in China from an interdisciplinary perspective and with a comparative approach, setting Chinese arbitration in its wider social context to aid understanding of its history, contemporary practice, the legal obstacles to modern arbitration and possible future trends. In 2011 the thesis on which this book was based was named 'Best Thesis in International Studies' by the Swiss Network for International Studies. "What distinguishes this work from other books on international arbitration is its interdisciplinary perspective and comparative approach...this book makes a remarkable contribution to the understanding of arbitration in China and transnational arbitration in general. Academics, scholars and students of international arbitration, comparative studies and globalisation may all find this book stimulating. It also provides useful guidance for practitioners involved or interested in arbitration in China." From the Foreword by Gabrielle Kaufmann-Kohler

During the first decade of the twenty-first century, the rising demand for peacekeepers saw the United Nations (UN) operate at a historically unprecedented tempo, with increases in the number and size of missions as well as in the scope and complexity of their mandates. The need to deploy over 120,000 UN peacekeepers and the demands placed upon them in the field have threatened to outstrip the willingness and to some extent capacity of the UN's Member States. This situation raised the questions of why states contribute forces to UN missions and, conversely, what factors inhibit them from doing more? Providing Peacekeepers answers these questions. After summarizing the challenges confronting the UN in its force generation efforts, the book develops a new framework for analyzing UN peacekeeping contributions in light of the evidence presented in sixteen case study chapters which examine the experiences of the United States, the United Kingdom, France, the People's Republic of China, the Russian Federation, Bangladesh, Pakistan, India, Nigeria, Ghana, Nepal, Uruguay, Brazil, Turkey, South Africa, and Japan. The book concludes by offering recommendations for how the UN might develop new strategies for force generation so as to meet the foreseeable challenges of twenty-first century peacekeeping and improve the quantity and quality of its uniformed peacekeepers.

International dispute settlement plays a fundamental role in maintaining the fabric of the international legal order, reflecting the desire of States, and increasingly non-State actors, to resolve their differences through international dispute procedures and other legal mechanisms. This edited collection focuses upon the growth and complexity of such legal methods, which includes judicial settlement (courts and tribunals), arbitration and other legal (or what might be termed 'extra-legal') means (international organisations, committees, inspection panels, and ombudsmen). In this important collection, such mechanisms are compared and evaluated side-by-side to provide, in one volume, a detailed and analytical account of the current framework. Ranging from key conceptual issues of proliferation of legal mechanisms and the associated risks of fragmentation through to innovations in dispute settlement mechanisms in many topical areas of international law, including international trade law, collective security law and regional law, this collection, written by leading international lawyers, provides a major study in the ongoing trends and emerging problems in this crucial area of international law. This edited collection is published to mark the retirement of Professor John Merrills, Emeritus Professor of International Law, University of Sheffield, who has written widely on international law and human rights law, but is probably best known for his work on the settlement of international disputes, evidenced by the enduring appeal of his leading text International Dispute Settlement, now in its fourth edition.

This is the first comprehensive study of the law governing professional misconduct by defense lawyers before the International Criminal Court (ICC). The ICC's regulatory regime was introduced in response to instances of misconduct experienced by other international and domestic criminal courts. The book first turns to how the ICC's forerunners - the International Criminal Tribunals for the former Yugoslavia and Rwanda, and the Special Court for Sierra Leone - coped with misconduct, often resulting in controversy. It also looks at the approaches which have evolved in Germany and the United States, reflecting the different role of defense lawyers in the civil and common law criminal justice traditions. It offers a unique insight into the professional responsibilities of defense lawyers within the various international and national regimes. Offering practical guidance on disciplinary systems and other sanctioning mechanisms, the book also explores the inherent tension at the heart of the defense lawyer's role: ensuring the human right to a fair trial and therefore anticipating that they will be zealous advocates for their clients, while, at the same time, expecting that they commit themselves as officers of the court. (Series: Studies in International and Comparative Criminal Law - Vol. 11)

This book outlines the principles behind the international law of foreign investment. The main focus is on the law governed by bilateral and multilateral investment treaties. It traces the purpose, context, and evolution of the clauses and provisions characteristic of contemporary investment treaties, and analyses the case law, interpreting the issues raised by standard clauses. Particular consideration is given to broad treaty-rules whose understanding in practice has mainly been shaped by their interpretation and application by international tribunals. In addition, the book introduces the dispute settlement mechanisms for enforcing investment law, outlining the operation of Investor vs State arbitration.
Combining a systematic analytical study of the texts and principles underlying investment law with a jurisprudential analysis of the case law arising in international tribunals, this book offers an ideal introduction to the principles of international investment law and arbitration, for students or practitioners alike.

This collection of documents brings together a large number of primary sources on the peaceful settlement of disputes in a usable and affordable format. The documents included reflect the diverse techniques of international dispute settlement, as recognised in Articles 2(3) and 33 of the UN Charter, such as negotiation, mediation, arbitration and adjudication. The book comprises the most relevant multilateral treaties establishing dispute settlement regimes, as well as examples of special agreements, compromissory clauses, optional clause declarations and relevant resolutions of international organisations. It covers both diplomatic and adjudicative methods of dispute settlement and follows a basic division between general dispute settlement mechanisms, and sectoral regimes in fields such as human rights, WTO law, investment, law of the sea, environmental law and arms control. The book is the first widely-available collection of key documents on dispute settlement. It is aimed at teachers, students and practitioners of international law and related disciplines.

The third edition of The WTO Dispute Settlement Procedures collects together the treaty texts, decisions and agreed practices relating to the procedures that apply in the settlement of WTO disputes. It affords ready answers to technical questions relating to matters such as: how disputes are initiated and conducted, including at the appellate stage; what deadlines apply and how to calculate them; what rules of conduct bind individuals involved in WTO dispute settlement; and what rules of procedure apply to meetings of the Dispute Settlement Body. This highly practical work, which includes cross-references and a subject index, will prove invaluable to anyone working in WTO dispute settlement, including lawyers, civil servants working in the field of trade, economists, academics and students. This edition has been fully updated to take account of revised rules and procedures.

This book provides a vivid reader on experiences of mediation throughout history and in many different regional, cultural and legal contexts. For experts in the field of mediation and legal anthropology it provides a series of fascinating case studies not previously reported on. For those not familiar with the field it provides a window on an alternative possibility for peacemaking in political conflicts. The book is held together by the editor's introduction, which defines political mediation, the research methodologies employed, the relationship of mediation to participatory democracy, and the growth of mediation in the past twenty years. The chapters which follow provide the anatomy of successful and unsuccessful mediations in contexts as widely diverse as the 30 Years War (1618-1648) which was ended following the intercession of the future Pope, Alexander VII. Three further chapters examine the role of the Catholic Church in other mediations - in the Basque conflict, in Burundi and in Chiapas, while a further group of chapters looks at conflicts in Ethiopia, Northern Ireland, Central America and Congo.

The International Centre for Settlement of Investment Disputes (ICSID) has become the leading arbitration institution for resolution of investor-state disputes, especially as ICSID may administer arbitrations initiated under such multilateral treaties as the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) and the growing number of bilateral investment treaties (BITs). Accordingly, familiarity with the regime and jurisprudence of ICSID arbitration is an essential component of any international investment venture. This Guide to ICSID Arbitration, written by three leading practitioners in the eminent international law firm of Freshfields Bruckhaus Deringer, fills the gap in the literature between generic descriptions and academic commentary on ICSID or its aspects. It provides a sufficiently detailed but still 'user-friendly' understanding of what ICSID arbitration is, when and how it can and should be used, and how an ICSID case works from start to finish. It offers potential and non-expert users of the ICSID regime'as well as those generally interested in international commercial arbitration'with the essentials of the ICSID Convention and of BITs, the various sets of rules, ICSID procedure, and the rapidly developing ICSID jurisprudence. The Guide includes the following: an introduction to the ICSID regime; a discussion of the comparative merits of ICSID and other forms of arbitration; the basics of ICSID contractual arbitration; the basics of ICSID arbitration under bilateral and multilateral investment treaties; illustrative treaty materials, including discussion and comparison of BITs, and the full text of model and sample BITs and Chapter 11 of NAFTA; a description of the main ICSID rules and how a typical ICSID case develops in practice; a discussion of the unique features of annulment, recognition and enforcement of ICSID awards, with reference to the main awards to date; extensive annexes of basic ICSID documents, along with texts of relevant treaties and a chart of BITs entered into between ICSID Member States; and a selective bibliography of resources, for those who desire a more detailed and analytical understanding of ICSID arbitration and ICSID case law. Guide to ICSID Arbitration will be of immeasurable value to international investors, corporate counsel, businesspersons, government legal advisors, interested lawyers and arbitrators, and students of dispute resolution. Pitched at an ideal location between academic scholarship and introductory texts, it offers parties in all these areas a full-fledged practical guide to the day-to-day realities of international investment dispute resolution in today's world.

The use of international trusts continues to expand, and practitioners increasingly need to be aware of cross-border considerations. This title provides a concise and practical overview of the key aspects of law and practice in all the key jurisdictions offering trusts.
Private and commercial trusts are established under the law of an increasing number of jurisdictions, which are competing to attract trust business, and these laws are often dissimilar. As international trusts mature, established trust jurisdictions are changing their laws to comply with the legal demands and standards imposed by international agencies, as well as to meet the legitimate expectations of the institutional investor. The courts of international centers are also developing their own jurisprudence. In addition, jurisdictions new to trusts are introducing trusts in the vehicles which they offer investors, and legislation from these new trust centers is opening up new routes for international investment and tax mitigation.
This book provides a comprehensive treatment of the subject, covering all the key on-shore and off-shore jurisdictions that practitioners typically encounter. It offers a very practical overview of the subject using a questionnaire format for each country, avoiding academic material, and giving concise answers to the sorts of frequently asked questions that arise in trust law and practice. The questionnaire covers a full range of subjects such as the mechanics of trusts, issues such as anti-money laundering laws and conflicts of laws, shams, protectors, and forced heirship as well as the different types of trusts used in a jurisdiction.
Formerly an annual special issue in the journal Trusts & Trustees, this title has been improved and extended with a reworked questionnaire, new countries and contributors, and a new editor, Charles Gothard.

For many parties to international contracts, arbitration has proven to be the most effective means of dispute resolution. Too many of these agreements, however, still founder on the rock of a defective dispute resolution clause. This acclaimed book shows practitioners how to steer clear of that all-too- common obstacle by drafting fully-informed, comprehensive contract provisions at the outset. With this newly updated edition of the very successful The Freshfields Guide to Arbitration and ADR - still in the concise, attractive format that made the original so popular - lawyers and business people will confidently negotiate contracts that ensure a speedy, clear-cut resolution of any dispute likely to arise. Taking into account the many significant developments in the law and practice of international arbitration that have occurred during the years since the First Edition, it offers: clear, uncomplicated contract-drafting advice, derived from the authors' wide practical experience model clauses that ensure the effectiveness of dispute resolution provisions - and avoid their pitfalls, and important reference materials. With this new edition The Freshfields Guide to Arbitration and ADR reaffirms itself as the preferred short guide for busy contract negotiators. It will help them to draft provisions that will weather disputes, preserve transactions, and foster long-lasting mutual confidence and trust among the parties.

As a result of globalization, cross-border transactions and litigation, and multilingual legislation, outsourcing legal translation has become common practice. Unfortunately, over-reliance on such outsourcing has given rise to significant dangers, including information asymmetry, goal divergence, and risk. Legal Translation Outsourced provides the only current reference on commercial legal translation performed outside institutions. Juliette Scott casts a critical eye on the practice as it now stands, offering an analysis of key risks and constraints. Her work is informed by empirical data of the legal translation outsourcing markets of 41 countries. Scott proposes original theoretical models aimed both at training legal translators and informing all stakeholders, including principals and agents. These include models of legal translation performance; a classification of constraints on legal translation applying upstream, during and downstream of translation work; and a description of the complex chain of supply. Working to improve the enterprise itself, Scott shows how implementing a comprehensive legal translation brief-a sorely needed template-can significantly benefit clients by increasing the fitness of translated texts. Further, she opens a number of avenues for future research with an eye to translator empowerment and professionalization.

Volume 14 of ICCA Congress Series, The New York Convention at 50, comprises the proceedings of the ICCA Conference held in Dublin in 2008 on the fiftieth anniversary of the 1958 New York Convention on the Recognition and Enforcement of Foreign Arbitral Awards. One of the highlights of the Conference was a Plenary Session in which the world's leading arbitration experts debated the need to revise the New York Convention. This discussion, along with the text of a preliminary draft of the revised Convention presented during the Conference, is reported in this volume. Further Reports and Commentary explore the two main themes of the Conference: Investment Treaty Arbitration/Treaty Arbitration, with contributions on: - The Impact of Investment Treaty Arbitration: Identifying the Expectations, Testing the Assumptions; - Investment Treaty Arbitration and Commercial Arbitration: Are They Different Ball Games? - Remedies in Investment Treaty Arbitration: The Bottom Line; and - The Enforcement of Investment Treaty Awards, and Rules-Based Solutions to Procedural Issues, with contributions on: - Multi-party Disputes; - Consolidation of Claims; - Summary Disposition; and - Provisional Measures. The volume also includes transcripts of the Round Table Session assessing the revisions to the UNCITRAL Rules on International Commercial Arbitration and of an Open Discussion on Recent Developments in International Arbitration.

Since its inception in 2001, the International Criminal Court (ICC) has been met with resistance by various African states and their leaders, who see the court as a new iteration of colonial violence and control. In Affective Justice Kamari Maxine Clarke explores the African Union's pushback against the ICC in order to theorize affect's role in shaping forms of justice in the contemporary period. Drawing on fieldwork in The Hague, the African Union in Addis Ababa, sites of postelection violence in Kenya, and Boko Haram's circuits in Northern Nigeria, Clarke formulates the concept of affective justice-an emotional response to competing interpretations of justice-to trace how affect becomes manifest in judicial practices. By detailing the effects of the ICC's all-African indictments, she outlines how affective responses to these call into question the "objectivity" of the ICC's mission to protect those victimized by violence and prosecute perpetrators of those crimes. In analyzing the effects of such cases, Clarke provides a fuller theorization of how people articulate what justice is and the mechanisms through which they do so.

The Yearbook Commercial Arbitration continues its longstanding commitment to serving as a primary resource for the international arbitration community with reporting on arbitral awards, arbitration legislation and rules throughout the world as well as on court decisions applying the leading arbitration conventions.
Volume XXXII includes:
- excerpts of arbitral awards made under the auspices of, inter alia, the International Chamber of Commerce (ICC);
- notes on new and amended arbitration rules, including references to their online publication;
- notes on recent developments in arbitration law and practice in Bolivia, China, Mongolia, New Zealand and Switzerland;
- excerpts of 89 court decisions applying the 1958 New York Convention from 18 countries -- including, for the first time, decisions from Pakistan, Portugal and Venezuela -- all indexed by subject matter and linked to the General Editor's published commentaries on the New York Convention;
- an extensive Bibliography of recent books and journals on arbitration.
Edited by the International Council for Commercial Arbitration (ICCA), the world's leading organization representing practitioners and academics in the field, the Yearbook is an essential tool for lawyers, business people and scholars involved in the practice and study of international arbitration.

Volume 13 of ICCA Congress Series, International Arbitration 2006: Back to Basics?, contains the proceedings of the 13th ICCA Congress held in Montreal in 2006, where international commercial arbitration specialists from around the world gathered to glean fresh insights on fundamental issues, focusing on three central themes.
The Reports and Commentary presented in Working Group A of the Congress concentrate on Re-examining the Arbitration Agreement. Leading experts explore crucial topics, including:
- The autonomy of the arbitration agreement;
- The arbitrators 'jurisdiction to determine Jurisdiction;
- The law applicable to the arbitration agreement; and
- Treaties as agreements to arbitrate.
Working Group B sessions examine Contemporary Practice in the Conduct of Proceedings and cover procedural aspects in Round Tables on:
- Fact testimony;
- Document production;
- The effective use of legal and technical experts; and
- Oral Argument: and in Reports and Commentary on:
- Arbitral Provisional Measures: The Actual Practice; and
- Evidentiary Privileges.
The volume concludes with the papers generated from the Congress's Plenary Session on Commercial Arbitration and Transnational Public Policy and Treaty Arbitration and International Law.

This work is an indispensable guide for arbitrators, lawyers and anyone with an interest in arbitration procedures. In recent years, international commercial arbitration procedures have made great strides to bring into line different traditions of law and practice. According to some observers, written witness statements, taken in advance, have lessened the chance that surprises will be sprung upon counsel and arbitrators during oral testimony. But considerable problems remain. The aim of "Arbitration and Oral Evidence", prepared by the ICC Institute of World Business Law, is to give the reader a thorough picture of the practical issues raised by the oral presentation of evidence and to present a balanced series of solutions to the problems involved. This is the second in a series of Dossiers from the ICC Institute. See also "Arbitration - Money Laundering", "Corruption and Fraud" and "Parallel State and Arbitral Procedures in International Arbitration." The evidential relationship between contemporary documentation, written testimony and oral testimony is a permanent challenge to all arbitrators and counsel in an international arbitration. However experienced the factual or expert witness may be, an oral witness has to be prepared for his testimony and a witness statement has to be written, both with legal help. The issues divide counsel and arbitrators, and there is a need for a better understanding of what is right and wrong in the interaction between written and oral evidence. "Arbitration and Oral Evidence" lays out the issues in a transparent and easy-to-understand way.

This book provides comprehensive coverage of the law and procedure of the European Court of Human Rights. It incorporates a step-by-step approach to the litigation process, covering areas such as lodging the initial application, seeking priority treatment, friendly settlement, the pilot judgment procedure, just satisfaction, enforcement of judgments, and Grand Chamber referrals. This new edition has been fully revised to take account of the latest developments in the Court's practice since 2010, including: the introduction (in 2014) of a mandatory application form; the updated Court Rules and practice directions; a more expansive approach to interim measures; the application of the 'no significant disadvantage' admissibility test and further applications of the exhaustion of domestic remedies rule and the six months' time limit; the steep rise in the use of unilateral declarations in striking cases out; developments in the use of 'Article 46' and pilot judgments; and the more extensive application of non-pecuniary measures of redress (including reinstatement to employment, disclosure of information and the protection of witnesses). This edition includes an expanded and up-to-date article-by-article commentary on the substantive law of the European Convention. Issues covered by the recent case-law include secret rendition, restrictions on in vitro fertilization, medical mistreatment, the treatment of migrants at sea and asylum procedures, states' extra-territorial jurisdiction, same-sex partnerships, and discrimination. There is new law on the rights of suspects, defendants and life sentence prisoners, and the duties owed to the victims of domestic violence, domestic servitude, and human trafficking. With such vast coverage and accessibility, this book is indispensable for anyone practising in this field.

The second edition of International Investment, Political Risk and Dispute Resolution explores the multi-layered legal framework for the protection of foreign investment against political risk. The authors expertly analyse some of the key issues surrounding this subject, such as structuring transactions to minimize political risk, political risk insurance, state responsibility, treaties protecting foreign investment, and international arbitration between states and investors. Since the previous edition was released in 2005, far more attention has been paid to these issues, in particular investor-state arbitration. All chapters have been revised to take into account the number of new arbitration awards that have come to light and the massive volume of commentary on the subject of international investment arbitration since the first edition. The authors have carefully considered the latest theoretical approaches to foreign investment protection and the most intellectually challenging awards issued in the intervening decade, as well as the most recent practical guidance on the procedural recourse available to investors who face political risks. This book is addressed to a wide audience, and is suitable as a primer for non-specialist practitioners seeking to familiarize themselves with international law pertaining to political risk. While appropriate for practitioner use, this book is also suitable for undergraduate students or for graduates who intend to specialize in international investment law.

In recent years, international commercial arbitration procedures have made great strides to bring into line different traditions of law and practice. But considerable problems remain. The aim of this new Dossier by the ICC Institute of World Business Law, is to give the reader a thorough picture of the practical issues raised by the conflicts arising when there is more than one arbitration and when commercial arbitrations run in parallel with state legal procedures. This is the third in a series of Dossiers from the Institute.

The International Chamber of Commerce's world-renowned Institute of World Business Law, where legal and business experts convene, has devoted an entire publication to money laundering and other forms of corruption: Arbitration - Money Laundering, Corruption and Fraud. This important Dossier focuses both on the nature of the problem and the lawyer/arbitrator's response to it. This is the first in a series of ICC Institute Dossiers. This useful text contains the proceedings of a conference on arbitration and money laundering organized by the ICC Institute of World Business Law. It brings the reader the expertise of lawyers, academicians and chartered accountants from a range of countries and addresses the key questions arbitrators and legal practitioners want answered: "Is the arbitrator's role in a case of fraud different from his role in other disputes?" "Is the arbitrator bound to report a case of money laundering or fraud if he has a suspicion that something is wrong?" "Is counsel to report someone coming to him for advice?" The Dossier gives a comprehensive overview of the issues. It begins with a look at the nature of the problems lawyers and other professionals face and the solutions they adopt in their daily business. The second part of the book concentrates on the problems raised for arbitrators by money laundering, fraud and bribery. The book ends with a detailed Q&A discussion section.

This is not another book about online dispute resolution (ODR). Rather, it is about how various information technology (IT) solutions may be put to good use in traditional arbitral proceedings. Because IT tools can reduce costs and time radically by accelerating the arbitral process, the trend toward more and more use of such tools in arbitral proceedings is unstoppable. For arbitration professionals, be they arbitrators or counsel, this book brings the landscape of this changed practice into clear focus, dispersing mists of confusion and clarifying the choices they will inevitably be called upon to make. In this first handbook on what is likely to become one of tomorrow's incontrovertible topics in the field of arbitration, a well-known expert in ODR guides the reader through the reasons to use IT and its practicalities, the choices made by the prevalent arbitration institutions in this regard, and the legal limits to the use of such technologies. His powerful 'toolbox' includes a wealth of practice guidelines, drafting suggestions for arbitrators or parties wishing to use IT, and checklists and reminders to be used in practice. Among the efficiency-promoting IT tools thoroughly explained are the following: case management websites; videoconferencing; live notes; ODR platforms as ready-to-use solutions; online filing; and e-mail. The presentation focuses on the IT systems developed by major arbitral institutions like the International Chamber of Commerce (ICC), the American Arbitration Association (AAA), and the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO), with detailed guidance through their case management websites, virtual case rooms, extranets, and other IT tools allowing multiparty communications. The book's highly accessible text - complete with anecdotes, vividly depicted examples, and interesting background information - is backed with great knowledge and expertise in the uses of IT in law practice, so the reader is assured of gaining confident awareness of the easy advantages to grasp and the stumbling blocks to avoid as he or she proceeds. This is a book in which anyone involved in an arbitration, or even likely to be, will discover great benefit.