This white paper is part of a series that promotes knowledge about language technology and its potential. It addresses educators, journalists, politicians, language communities and others. The availability and use of language technology in Europe varies between languages. Consequently, the actions that are required to further support research and development of language technologies also differ for each language. The required actions depend on many factors, such as the complexity of a given language and the size of its community. META-NET, a Network of Excellence funded by the European Commission, has conducted an analysis of current language resources and technologies. This analysis focused on the 23 official European languages as well as other important national and regional languages in Europe. The results of this analysis suggest that there are many significant research gaps for each language. A more detailed expert analysis and assessment of the current situation will help maximise the impact of additional research and minimize any risks. META-NET consists of 54 research centres from 33 countries that are working with stakeholders from commercial businesses, government agencies, industry, research organisations, software companies, technology providers and European universities. Together, they are creating a common technology vision while developing a strategic research agenda that shows how language technology applications can address any research gaps by 2020.

This book constitutes the refereed proceedings of the Second International Workshop on Controlled Natural Language, CNL 2010, held in Marettimo Island, Italy, in September 2010. The 9 revised papers presented in this volume, together with 1 tutorial, were carefully reviewed and selected from 17 initial submissions. They broadly cover the field of controlled natural language, stressing theoretical and practical aspects of CNLs, relations to other knowledge representation languages, tool support, and applications.

This book constitutes the refereed proceedings of the 25th Canadian Conference on Artificial Intelligence, Canadian AI 2012, held in Toronto, Canada, in May 2012. The 23 regular papers, 16 short papers, and 4 papers from the Graduate Student Symposium presented were carefully reviewed and selected for inclusion in this book. The papers cover a broad range of topics presenting original work in all areas of artificial intelligence, either theoretical or applied.

The general markup language XML has played an outstanding role in the mul- ple ways of processing electronic documents, XML being used either in the design of interface structures or as a formal framework for the representation of structure or content-related properties of documents. This book in its 13 chapters discusses aspects of XML-based linguistic information modeling combining: methodological issues, especially with respect to text-related information modeling, applicati- oriented research and issues of formal foundations. The contributions in this book are based on current research in Text Technology, Computational Linguistics and in the international domain of evolving standards for language resources. Rec- rent themes in this book are markup languages, explored from different points of view, and topics of text-related information modeling. These topics have been core areas of the research Unit "Text-technological Information Modeling" (www. te- technology. de) funded from 2002 to 2009 by the German Research Foundation (DFG). Positions developed in this book could also bene t from the presentations and discussion at the conference "Modelling Linguistic Information Resources" at the Center for Interdisciplinary Research (Zentrum fur .. interdisziplinare .. Forschung, ZiF) at Bielefeld, a center for advanced studies known for its international and interdisciplinary meetings and research. The editors would like to thank the DFG and ZiF for their nancial support, the publisher, the series editors, the reviewers and those people that helped to prepare the manuscript, especially Carolin Kram, Nils Diewald, Jens Stegmann and Peter M. Fischer and last but not least, all of the authors.

"Predicting Prosody from Text for Text-to-Speech Synthesis"covers thespecific aspects of prosody, mainly focusing on how to predict the prosodic information from linguistic text, and then how to exploit the predicted prosodic knowledge for various speech applications. Author K. Sreenivasa Rao discusses proposed methods along with state-of-the-art techniques for the acquisition and incorporation of prosodic knowledge for developing speech systems.

Positional, contextual and phonological features are proposed for representing the linguistic and production constraints of the sound units present in the text. This book is intended for graduate students and researchers working in the area of speech processing."

Edited in collaboration with FoLLI, the Association of Logic, Language and Information, this book constitutes the refereed proceedings of the 7th International Conference on Logical Aspects of Computational Linguistics, LACL 2012, held in Nantes, France, in July 2012. The 15 revised full papers presented together with 2 invited talks were carefully reviewed and selected from 24 submissions. The papers are organized in topical sections on logical foundation of syntactic formalisms, logics for semantics of lexical items, sentences, discourse and dialog, applications of these models to natural language processing, type theoretic, proof theoretic, model theoretic and other logically based formal methods for describing natural language syntax, semantics and pragmatics, as well as the implementation of natural language processing software relying on such methods.

Entropy Guided Transformation Learning: Algorithms and Applications (ETL) presents a machine learning algorithm for classification tasks. ETL generalizes Transformation Based Learning (TBL) by solving the TBL bottleneck: the construction of good template sets. ETL automatically generates templates using Decision Tree decomposition.

The authors describe ETL Committee, an ensemble method that uses ETL as the base learner. Experimental results show that ETL Committee improves the effectiveness of ETL classifiers. The application of ETL is presented to four Natural Language Processing (NLP) tasks: part-of-speech tagging, phrase chunking, named entity recognition and semantic role labeling. Extensive experimental results demonstrate that ETL is an effective way to learn accurate transformation rules, and shows better results than TBL with handcrafted templates for the four tasks. By avoiding the use of handcrafted templates, ETL enables the use of transformation rules to a greater range of tasks.

Suitable for both advanced undergraduate and graduate courses, Entropy Guided Transformation Learning: Algorithms and Applications provides a comprehensive introduction to ETL and its NLP applications.

Text classification is becoming a crucial task to analysts in different areas. In the last few decades, the production of textual documents in digital form has increased exponentially. Their applications range from web pages to scientific documents, including emails, news and books. Despite the widespread use of digital texts, handling them is inherently difficult - the large amount of data necessary to represent them and the subjectivity of classification complicate matters. This book gives a concise view on how to use kernel approaches for inductive inference in large scale text classification; it presents a series of new techniques to enhance, scale and distribute text classification tasks. It is not intended to be a comprehensive survey of the state-of-the-art of the whole field of text classification. Its purpose is less ambitious and more practical: to explain and illustrate some of the important methods used in this field, in particular kernel approaches and techniques.

Peter Flynn has been an enthusiastic and skillful contributor in the world of SGML and XML for many years, and it is a pleasure to see him set some of his expertise down in writing as well. The range and power of SGML tools have taken a sharp upward turn: the first step leading to this was that the Web came along with HTML, and showed the whole world that pointy brackets and (at least somewhat) descriptive markup could make a difference. Soon afterward, 'HTML claustrophobia' began to grow and XML came to the rescue. Since XML is fundamentally an elegant subset of SGML that reduces complexity without reducing functionality, the movement to XML is great for SGML too. The massive interest in XML is bringing forth a huge variety of new, faster, more powerful, and cheaper software tools. Peter has caught the cusp of this change and shows in detail how SGML and XML tools fit together into integrated solutions that return value for your investment in structured information.

Current access paradigms for the Web, i.e., direct access via search engines or database queries and navigational access via static taxonomies, have recently been criticized because they are too rigid or simplistic to effectively cope with a large number of practical search applications. A third paradigm, dynamic taxonomies and faceted search, focuses on user-centered conceptual exploration, which is far more frequent in search tasks than retrieval using exact specification, and has rapidly become pervasive in modern Web data retrieval, especially in critical applications such as product selection for e-commerce. It is a heavily interdisciplinary area, where data modeling, human factors, logic, inference, and efficient implementations must be dealt with holistically. Sacco, Tzitzikas, and their contributors provide a coherent roadmap to dynamic taxonomies and faceted search. The individual chapters, written by experts in each relevant field and carefully integrated by the editors, detail aspects like modeling, schema design, system implementation, search performance, and user interaction. The basic concepts of each area are introduced, and advanced topics and recent research are highlighted. An additional chapter is completely devoted to current and emerging application areas, including e-commerce, multimedia, multidimensional file systems, and geographical information systems. The presentation targets advanced undergraduates, graduate students and researchers from different areas - from computer science to library and information science - as well as advanced practitioners. Given that research results are currently scattered among very different publications, this volume will allow researchers to get a coherent and comprehensive picture of the state of the art.

Although there has been much progress in developing theories, models and systems in the areas of Natural Language Processing (NLP) and Vision Processing (VP), there has heretofore been little progress on integrating these two subareas of Artificial Intelligence (AI). This book contains a set of edited papers addressing theoretical issues and the grounding of representations in NLP and VP from philosophical and psychological points of view. The papers focus on site descriptions such as the reasoning work on space at Leeds, UK, the systems work of the ILS (Illinois, U.S.A.) and philosophical work on grounding at Torino, Italy, on Schank's earlier work on pragmatics and meaning incorporated into hypermedia teaching systems, Wilks' visions on metaphor, on experimental data for how people fuse language and vision and theories and computational models, mainly connectionist, for tackling Searle's Chinese Room Problem and Harnad's Symbol Grounding Problem. The Irish Room is introduced as a mechanism through which integration solves the Chinese Room. The U.S.A., China and the EU are well reflected, showing the fact that integration is a truly international issue. There is no doubt that all of this will be necessary for the SuperInformationHighways of the future.

This book is based on the NATO Advanced Research Workshop on Structures of Com munication and Intelligent Help for Hypermedia Courseware, which was held at Espinho, Portugal, April 19-24, 1990. The texts included here should not be regarded as untouched proceedings of this meeting, but as the result of the reflections which took place there and which led the authors to revise their texts in that light. The Espinho ARW was itself to some extent the continuation of the ARW on Designing Hypermedia/Hypertext for Learning, held in Germany in 1989 (D. H. Jonassen, H. Mandl (eds.): Designing Hypermedia for Learning. NATO ASI Series F, Vol. 67. Springer 1990). At that meeting an essential conclusion becarne apparent: the importance and interest of hyper media products as potential pedagogical tools. It was then already predictable that the enormous evolution of hypermedia would lead to its association with multimedia technologies, namely for the production of courseware. Parallel to the improvement of the didactic potential and quality which results from this association, it nevertheless brought along a natural array of difficulties, some old, some new, in the con ception and use of hypermedia products. Today there is agreement that one of the most promising technological advances for education is represented by the use of text, sound and images based on nonlinear techniques of information handling and searching of hypermedia architectures. The problem of hypermedia is fundamentally one of communication; this leads to an attempt at defining a language for hypermedia.

This book is the final product of a conference organized at the Free Univer- sity, Amsterdam, by some members of the Dutch Human Performance Group and sponsored by the Dutch Psychonomic Society. We first of all thank the Society for financially supporting this publication, and the Free University for providing technical support. P.J.G. Keuss, A.A.J. Mannaerts, and W. Hulstijn, members of the organizing commitee, and J.A. Michon and W. Molenaar collaborated with the editors in defining the fields dealt with at the conference and in the book and in getting together the team of authors. All the chapters in this volume have been reviewed by a team of external referees, who generously spent their time to improve the readability, coher- ence, and scientific standard of the work as a whole: H. Bogers, Institute for Experimental Psychology, University of Groningen, The Netherlands; P. Innocent, Leicester Polytechnic, UK; G.A.M. Kempen, Institute for Cogni- tion Research and Information Technology, Nijmegen, The Netherlands; J. Moraal, Institute for Perception RVO/TNO, Soesterberg, The Netherlands; I.M. van Oorschot, Department of Economics, Free University, Amsterdam, The Netherlands; G.R.E. Ouweneel, Institute for Experimental Psychology, Haren, The Netherlands; J.G.W. Raaymakers, Institute for Perception RVO/TNO, Soesterberg, The Netherlands; G. Rohr, IBM Science Center, Heidelberg, FRG; M.J. Tauber, Department of Computer Science, University of Paderborn, FRG; Y. Waern, Department of Psychology, University of Stockholm, Sweden; G. d'Ydewalle, Department of Psychology, University of Leuven, Belgium.

Keith M. Ponting Speech Research Unit, DERA Malvern St. Andrew's Road, Great Malvern, Worcs. WR14 3PS, UK email: ponting

This book constitutes the refereed proceedings of the 8th Discourse Anaphora and Anaphor Resolution Colloquium, DAARC 2011, held in Faro, Portugal, in October 2011. The 16 revised full papers presented were carefully reviewed and selected from 45 initial submissions. The papers are organized in topical sections on computational resolution methodology and systems; language analysis and representation; and human processing and performance.

Summary his book was written primarily for people who intend or wish to develop new machines for the output of typefaces. It is practical to categorize equipment into three groups for which digital alphabets are required - 1) display devices, 2) typesetting machines and 3) numerically controlled (NC) machines. Until now, development of typefaces has been overly dependent upon the design of the respective machine on which it was to be used. This need not be the case. Digitization of type should be undertaken in two steps: the preparation of a database using hand-digitization, and the subsequent automatic generation of machine formats by soft scanning, through the use of a computer-based program. Digital formats for typefaces are ideally suited to system atic ordering, as are coding techniques. In this volume, various formats are investigated, their properties discussed and rela tive production requirements analyzed. Appendices provide readers additional information, largely on digital formats for typeface storage introduced by the IKARUS system. This book was composed in Latino type, developed by Hermann Zapf from his Melior for URW in 1990. Compo sition was accomplished on a Linotronic 300, as well as on an Agfa 9400 typesetter using PostScript. v Preface Preface his book was brought out by URW Publishers in 1986 with the title "Digital Formats for Typefaces;). It was translated into English in 1987, Japanese in 1989 and French in 1991.

When individuals read or listen to prose they try to understand what it means. This is quite obvious. However, the cognitive mechanisms that participate in prose comprehension are far from obvious. Even simple stories involve com plexities that have stymied many cognitive scientists. Why is prose comprehen sion so difficult to study? Perhaps because comprehension is guided by so many domains of knowledge. Perhaps because some critical mysteries of prose comprehension reside between the lines-in the mind of the comprehender. Ten years ago very few psychologists were willing to dig beyond the surface of explicit code in their studies of discourse processing. Tacit knowledge, world knowledge, inferences, and expectations were slippery notions that experimental psychologists managed to circumvent rather than understand. In many scientific circles it was taboo to investigate mechanisms and phenomena that are not directly governed by the physical stimulus. Fortunately, times have changed. Cognitive scientists are now vigorously exploring the puzzles of comprehension that lie beyond the word. The study of discourse processing is currently growing at a frenetic pace."

8. 5 Summary In this chapter we have identified three basic patterns of influences that lead to ambiguity in the QP analysis of the basic active furnace state. We have then shown how modification of these patterns, by adding equilibrium values and sensitivity annotations on influence arcs, could permit resolu tion of the ambiguities. Finally, we have described in detail the extensions needed to the basic influence resolution algorithm in QP theory to oper ate on these extended descriptions. We have also shown that the modified influence resolution algorithm corrects an error in Forbus' original method for combining influences. We have then presented an extended example in which introduction of equilibrium assumptions eliminates all ambigu ity in the influence resolution deduction. In the next chapter we extend these techniques further, by developing a qualitative perturbation analysis technique that permits us to answer "what ir' control questions; then we extend this technique to obtain quantitative, as well as qualitative, effects of hypothetical control actions. 8."

In 1989, the ISO Standard 8613 "Office Document Architecture (ODA) and Interchange Format" was published. The Standard is intended for the interchange of documents in an Open Systems environment. ISO 8613 is technically identical to the CCITT Recommendations of the T.410 series called "Open Document Architecture (ODA) and Interchange Format" published in 1988. Almost all major companies in the office automation and telecommunication area are currently developing products based on this Standard. In this book, all important aspects of the presently publishedeight parts of the Standard are discussed. The book provides a comprehensiveand detailed introduction to the technical specifications of ISO 8613 and the concepts on which these specifications are based, including the extensions which were added to the ODA Standard in 1991. The book isprimarily addressed to readers who want to investigate the applicability of the Standard for their document interchange problems, plan to acquire products based on the Standard, or intend to develop document processingsystems conforming to the Standard.

Discourse Processing here is framed as marking up a text with structural descriptions on several levels, which can serve to support many language-processing or text-mining tasks. We first explore some ways of assigning structure on the document level: the logical document structure as determined by the layout of the text, its genre-specific content structure, and its breakdown into topical segments. Then the focus moves to phenomena of local coherence. We introduce the problem of coreference and look at methods for building chains of coreferring entities in the text. Next, the notion of coherence relation is introduced as the second important factor of local coherence. We study the role of connectives and other means of signaling such relations in text, and then return to the level of larger textual units, where tree or graph structures can be ascribed by recursively assigning coherence relations. Taken together, these descriptions can inform text summarization, information extraction, discourse-aware sentiment analysis, question answering, and the like. Table of Contents: Introduction / Large Discourse Units and Topics / Coreference Resolution / Small Discourse Units and Coherence Relations / Summary: Text Structure on Multiple Interacting Levels

As its title suggests, "Uncertainty Management in Information Systems" is a book about how information systems can be made to manage information permeated with uncertainty. This subject is at the intersection of two areas of knowledge: information systems is an area that concentrates on the design of practical systems that can store and retrieve information; uncertainty modeling is an area in artificial intelligence concerned with accurate representation of uncertain information and with inference and decision-making under conditions infused with uncertainty. New applications of information systems require stronger capabilities in the area of uncertainty management. Our hope is that lasting interaction between these two areas would facilitate a new generation of information systems that will be capable of servicing these applications. Although there are researchers in information systems who have addressed themselves to issues of uncertainty, as well as researchers in uncertainty modeling who have considered the pragmatic demands and constraints of information systems, to a large extent there has been only limited interaction between these two areas. As the subtitle, "From Needs to Solutions," indicates, this book presents view points of information systems experts on the needs that challenge the uncer tainty capabilities of present information systems, and it provides a forum to researchers in uncertainty modeling to describe models and systems that can address these needs."

It is an established tradition that researchers from many countries get together on the average every three years for a two week Advanced Studies Institute on Automatic Speech Recognition and Synthesis. According to ASI policies the Institute is financed by NATO. This book contains the texts of lectures and papers contributed by the attendees of the ASI which was held July 2 - 14, 1984, at Bonas, Gers, France. Focussed on New Systems and Architectures for Automatic Speech Recognition and Synthesis, this book is divided into 4 parts: (a) Review of ba8ic algorithm8 (b) SY8tem architecture and VLSI for automatic Speech (c) Software 8Y8tem8 for automatic 8peech recognition, (d) Speech 8ynthe8i8 and phonetic8. Due to the international nature of the Institute, the readers will find in this book different styles, different points of view and applications to different languages. This reflects also some characteristics of the International Association for Pattern Recognition ( APR) whose technical committee on Speech Recognition has organized this ASI. Proposed contributions have been reviewed by an Editorial Committee composed of W. Ainsworth (Kent), R. Bisiani (Pittsburgh), J. P. Haton (Nancy), W. Hess (Munich), J. L. Houle (Montreal), P. Laface (Turin), R. Moore (Malvern), H. Niemann (Erlangen) and J. Ohala (Berkeley). Typesetting of the book was performed using SYMSET facilities developed entirely by the Department of Computer Science at Concordia University. Special thanks are due to L. Lam, H. Monkiewicz and L. Thiel.

The papers in this book are the result of the NATO conference "Cognitive Modelling and Inter active Environments" that was held in Mierlo, the Netherlands, November 5 - 8, 1990. Within the framework of the NATO Advanced Research Workshops this invitational conference was naturally on learning, but it emphasized a number of factors that are not generally treated in dis cussions on learning and specifically in computer-assisted learning. It was realized by the orig inators of the conference that, with respect to computer-assisted instruction, the stage has not nearly been reached where it is well known how a successful interactive instructional environ ment has to be created. This contrasts strongly with the sheer number of computerized learning programs that exist already and continue to be produced. Frequently the motivation to create a computer-assisted learning program is heavily connected with a scientific discipline. Logically it is the proper task for instructional science to produce instructional programs. The high degree of formalization in linguistics allows one often in a straightforward way, to au tomate learning programs for language instruction. Artificial intelligence, in its endeavour to capture basic principles of knowledge representation and knowledge acquisition, leads naturally to Intelligent Tutoring Systems. Computer science is the logical breeding ground for programs that manipulate knowledge for many different students, that register actions reliably, and that automate parts of time-intensive teaching tasks. The joint concern of all of these approaches is the transfer of knowledge.

This white paper is part of a series that promotes knowledge about language technology and its potential. It addresses educators, journalists, politicians, language communities and others. The availability and use of language technology in Europe varies between languages. Consequently, the actions that are required to further support research and development of language technologies also differ for each language. The required actions depend on many factors, such as the complexity of a given language and the size of its community. META-NET, a Network of Excellence funded by the European Commission, has conducted an analysis of current language resources and technologies. This analysis focused on the 23 official European languages as well as other important national and regional languages in Europe. The results of this analysis suggest that there are many significant research gaps for each language. A more detailed expert analysis and assessment of the current situation will help maximise the impact of additional research and minimize any risks. META-NET consists of 54 research centres from 33 countries that are working with stakeholders from commercial businesses, government agencies, industry, research organisations, software companies, technology providers and European universities. Together, they are creating a common technology vision while developing a strategic research agenda that shows how language technology applications can address any research gaps by 2020.

Computers have changed typography and prepress as well as printing. Typefaces are manufactured by "digital punch cutters" with a PC, not any more by punch cutters. Typefaces are constructed an output by a new technolgy, the so-called fonttechnology. The book by Peter Karow covers the whole area of it. It offers various chapters about (among others) issues like intelligent font scaling, kerning, quality of type, legibility, and problems of different output devices. It is interesting to read about Gutenberg setting, the font market, optical scaling, and last but not least a "hand on" Kanjhi, the Chinese/Japanese Glyphs. Furthermore, Fonttechnology contains a number of valuable and instructive appendices. Almost everything one has to know about type and computers!