In 1998 Gower published the highly successful third edition of Corporate Fraud by Michael Comer. Sadly, the need for such books has not disappeared - if anything it has increased - with cases such as Enron, WorldCom and the Allied Irish Bank and so this volume concentrates on the practicalities of investigating and recovering from fraud. Fraud can be prevented by secure processes and by ensuring that people allowed access to them are honest. This is easier said than done; failures will occur and every company needs contingency plans as a safety net. Contrary to popular belief, corporate fraud happens to good companies and effective managers. What is crucial is your reaction when suspicions are first aroused - fraud changes from a problem to a disaster mainly because people's initial response is ineffective. This book is a comprehensive action plan for organizations that are victims of corporate fraud. The aim is to help make sure that you can react swiftly and effectively, recover your money, your costs with interest and punish the offenders so that a deterrent is established for others. Most importantly the book will help you return to normal working as quickly as possible. It is highly practical, featuring checklists and case examples throughout. Applying his extraordinary experience, keen insight and vast practical knowledge, Mike Comer is able to take a unique position in showing organizations what they can do and what their rights are. His writing style is entertaining and enlightening - this is no dry, laborious and incomprehensible legal reference. You will find Investigating Corporate Fraud a fascinating and invaluable source of practical expert guidance on a subject strewn with potential dangers.

ARE YOU PREPARED FOR THE LAW ENFORCEMENT IT REVOLUTION? Law enforcement agencies that are laggards in Information Technology (IT) will soon, if not already, be considered mismanaged. Whether you are in an operational position, or you are a police officer who aspires to a higher rank, you must be aware of how IT can help you perform your job and help your organization.

DON'T BE INTIMIDATED BY IT ANY LONGER. With extensive experience implementing large-scale IT projects to the law enforcement community, author Jim Chu has assembled a comprehensive, one-stop guide that enables you to understand the many complexities and hurdles associated with IT systems. In a non-technical language, Law Enforcement Information Technology: A Managerial, Operational, and Practitioner Guide describes infrastructure components and outlines economic concepts that explain how and why IT adds value. It also includes seminal perspectives on why IT supports community policing, and how public policing is changing to a knowledge-based profession.

LEARN HOW TO APPLY IT AND MAXIMIZE THE USE OF INFORMATION. Used wisely and correctly, IT can be one of your greatest and most efficient assets in law enforcement. Whether you address automation or communicate with those who do, you need to understand the role of IT in all aspects of the public safety service delivery chain. Logically organized and easy to understand, Law Enforcement Information Technology helps you become well-versed in the latest terminology, products, and automation options and gives you the ability to work with technical resources in a partnership to improve the performance of your organization.

'Profilers' and 'Profiling' are now widely discussed, often with almost mythical respect. This is the first volume to cut through the confusions and misunderstandings surrounding this topic to report on detailed, original, scientific research that examines the variations in criminal behaviour from which any 'profile' must be derived. The studies included examine both early approaches to the field and the future problems and potential for an Investigative Psychology approach of offender profiling. This book will be of great value to all those who have been waiting for a scientific, psychological basis to police investigations. It will be read with interest by those who want to get behind the rhetoric and controversy that surrounds 'offender profiling' and require an up to date account of current research and recent discoveries.

He baffled and eluded law enforcement officers for nearly two decades. In the end, however, it wasn't the painstaking forensic analysis of hundreds of pieces of crime scene evidence that led to the capture of the Unabomber-but the lucky tip of an informant. Truth of the matter is, for all their sophistication and hi-tech science, crime-fighting techniques such as fingerprint and DNA analysis are a factor in less than one percent of all criminal cases. In the overwhelming number of crimes, informants have provided the necessary ammunition needed to bring criminals to justice, from Genovese to Gotti and Capone to Dillinger.
Confidential Informant: Understanding Law Enforcement's Most Valuable Tool explores the covert and clandestine world of informants-revealing the secrets of how to find them and make the most out of them, while at the same time, avoiding the pitfalls of dealing with them. Using case studies in which informants played key roles in solving crimes, the book examines all aspects of informant development and management, from the motivation of the informant to the legal problems that accompany the use of informants in criminal cases.
Written by John Madinger, a former narcotics agent, supervisor and administrator, and currently a Senior Special Agent with the Criminal Investigation Division of the Internal Revenue Service, Confidential Informant: Understanding Law Enforcement's Most Valuable Tool examines the emotional and behavioral characteristics of the informant, as well as the psychology of trust and betrayal. The book also illustrates techniques for improving interviewing and communication skills when dealing with informants, and provides invaluable forms that can be used in connection with these vital sources of information.

An Edgar Award finalist for Best Fact Crime, this "impressive...open-eyed investigative inquiry wrapped within a cultural history of rural America" (The Wall Street Journal) shows legendary statistician and baseball writer Bill James applying his analytical acumen to crack an unsolved century-old mystery surrounding one of the deadliest serial killers in American history. Between 1898 and 1912, families across the country were bludgeoned in their sleep with the blunt side of an axe. Jewelry and valuables were left in plain sight, bodies were piled together, faces covered with cloth. Some of these cases, like the infamous Villasca, Iowa, murders, received national attention. But few people believed the crimes were related. And fewer still would realize that all of these families lived within walking distance to a train station. When celebrated baseball statistician and true crime expert Bill James first learned about these horrors, he began to investigate others that might fit the same pattern. Applying the same know-how he brings to his legendary baseball analysis, he empirically determined which crimes were committed by the same person. Then after sifting through thousands of local newspapers, court transcripts, and public records, he and his daughter Rachel made an astonishing discovery: they learned the true identity of this monstrous criminal. In turn, they uncovered one of the deadliest serial killers in America. Riveting and immersive, with writing as sharp as the cold side of an axe, The Man from the Train paints a vivid, psychologically perceptive portrait of America at the dawn of the twentieth century, when crime was regarded as a local problem, and opportunistic private detectives exploited a dysfunctional judicial system. James shows how these cultural factors enabled such an unspeakable series of crimes to occur, and his groundbreaking approach to true crime will convince skeptics, amaze aficionados, and change the way we view criminal history.

First published in 1996. Routledge is an imprint of Taylor & Francis, an informa company.

The words "identity", "diversity", "multiculturalism", and "Eurocentrism" have become familiar to us through a process of political and cultural transformation. In the United States, a great national debate rages over fears that the country will fall apart and sacrifice its free speech to "political correctness". In Europe, a related discussion has focused on the resurgence of xenophobia and ethnic nationalism. Undoubtedly, these debates touch on issues which, after the collapse of Cold War geopolitics, are likely to remain with us for some time. "The Identity in Question" provides a theoretical analysis of this issue and the questions it raises about critical theory. The contributors to this collection look behind the familiar words of the discourse to rethink notions of universality and agency and the traditions of liberalism, nationalism and pluralism. They investigate the meanings of democracy and "radical democracy". They also ask how such notions relate to questions of sexual orientation. More generally, the book explores how the new critical theories and methods that have taken shape over the last 20 years figure in these debates, along with their conceptions of "otherness".

This is the story of Billy Gene Malone and the end of an era. Malone lived almost his entire life on the Navajo Reservation working as an Indian trader; the last real Indian trader to operate historic Hubbell Trading Post. In 2004, the National Park Service (NPS) launched an investigation targeting Malone, alleging a long list of crimes that were "similar to Al Capone". In 2005, federal agent Paul Berkowitz was assigned to take over the year- and-a-half-old case. His investigation uncovered serious problems with the original allegations, raising questions about the integrity of his supervisors and colleagues as well as high-level NPS managers. In an intriguing account of whistle-blowing, Berkowitz tells how he bypassed his chain-of-command and delivered his findings directly to the Office of the Inspector General.

Tradecraft is a term used within the intelligence community to describe the methods, practices, and techniques used in espionage and clandestine investigations. Whether the practitioner is a covert agent for the government or an identity thief and con man, the methods, practices, tactics, and techniques are often the same and sometimes learned from the same sources. Advanced Criminal Investigations and Intelligence Operations: Tradecraft Methods, Practices, Tactics, and Techniques reveals how intelligence officers and investigators conduct their tradecraft. You'll learn how to plan an operation, how to build an identity and cover story for deep cover operations, and how to detect those who have created false identities for illegal purposes. You'll also get insight into the technical aspects of intelligence (the INTs), counterintelligence, and criminal investigations, and legal considerations for conducting intelligence investigations. Topics include: A discussion of black bag operational planning HUMINT (human intelligence)-the gathering of information from human sources DAME (defenses against methods of entry), forced entry into buildings, safes and combination locks, and automobile locks PSYOPS (psychological operations) and the use of social networks ELINT (electronic intelligence) and SIGINT (signals intelligence)-electronic interception of intelligence, bugs, wiretaps, and other communications interceptions EMINT (emanations intelligence), which concerns the emanation of data, signals, or other intelligence from C4I systems IMINT (imagery intelligence), involving any intelligence gathered using images Intelligence files and analytical methods Based upon the author's training and experience over more than three decades as a law enforcement investigator and military officer, as well as research conducted as an attorney and in academia, the book provides you with an insider perspective on sensitive covert and overt operations and sources. Supplemented with roughly 140 illustrations and photos, this collection of special skills and reference materials is essential to the professional investigator and intelligence operative.

This book explains the emerging system of domination and the exercise of power in the Third World society of Guyana. It is concerned with the police as a bureaucratic inheritance.

Based primarily upon information from the UK Special Branch Counterterrorism Unit, Policing Terrorism: Research Studies into Police Counterterrorism Investigations takes you through the mechanics of a counterterrorism investigation. A combination of legal and empirical research, this entry in the Advances in Police Theory and Practice book series examines subjects that include surveillance, intelligence gathering, and informants. It also addresses practical obstacles in counterterrorist investigations. The first section of the book conducts a comparative study of laws governing terrorist investigations in the UK, US, Canada, and Australia. It compares the legal definition of terrorism in each country and how it has been incorporated into the statutes regarding terrorism-except in the case of the US, which has not established a definition of terrorism. The book locates similarities in the legal jurisdictions of cooperating countries and discusses how legal gaps can create difficulties for international cooperation. The second section contains empirical studies on practical aspects of terrorist investigations and the activities of terrorist organizations. It evaluates operational officers' discretion in using the powers granted to them and analyzes terrorist organizations' methods in radicalizing and recruiting people to their causes. It also explores the critical role of informants in gathering intelligence, covering a broad range of issues including integrity, risk assessment, ethics of handling informants, police interrogation of suspects, and the use of informants at trial. With many governments currently at a high threat level, increased international cooperation among counterterrorism agencies is imperative. Policing Terrorism presents several pathways to generating more effective cooperation. It provides you with information on factors that help or hurt cooperation while suggesting what can be done to improve curr

Some have estimated that healthcare fraud in the United States results in losses of approximately $80 billion a year. Although there are many books available that describe how to "detect" healthcare fraud, few address what must be done after the fraud is detected. Filling this need, Charles Piper's Healthcare Fraud Investigation Guidebook details not only how to detect healthcare fraud, but also how to "investigate" and prove the wrongdoing to increase the likelihood of successful prosecution in court. The book starts by covering the history of healthcare insurance and the various types of fraud schemes. It presents Charles Piper's unique approach to investigating (The Piper Method) which allows readers to conduct as many as 10 simultaneous investigations for each case. It emphasizes the importance of simultaneously searching for waste and abuse as well as systemic weaknesses and deficiencies that caused or contributed to the problem or wrongdoing under investigation and then make recommendations for improvement. It also provides: Questions to ask whistleblowers, complainants, employers, employees, and healthcare providers who are suspects Tips on investigative case planning, goals, and strategies Sample visual aids for use when briefing others about your investigative findings Guidance on presenting information obtained from healthcare investigations and on how to testify in court Techniques for uncovering previously undetected fraud The book includes a sample case study that walks readers through a mock case-from the time the case is received through the end. The case study demonstrates how to initiate, plan, and conduct a thorough and complete healthcare fraud investigation while incorporating Piper's proven methodology. Sharing insights gained through Charles Piper's decades of experience as a federal special agent and certified fraud examiner, the Healthcare Fraud Investigation Guidebook aims to revolutionize the way that healthcare fraud investigations are conducted. It provides the understanding you need to not only put a bandage on the problem of healthcare fraud, but to actually start curing the greed that is poisoning the healthcare industry.

Many cities, towns, and municipalities across the United States have criminal organizations operating within their jurisdictions. This book gives the investigator a guide to probing, evaluating, and analyzing local criminal organizations, with the goal of disrupting and dismantling criminal operations. Subjects covered include investigative field techniques, identification of enterprise vulnerabilities, and an in-depth look into FBI task forces. Intended for law enforcement and other criminal justice professionals, Criminal Enterprise Investigation provides readers with a critical "how to" guide to overcoming criminal enterprise in their communities. Features: Provides step-by-step guide to dismantling criminal organizations Includes real-life examples of successful investigations Covers a wide range of criminal groups, including domestic terrorists, drug cartels, gangs, white-collar criminals, and robbery and extortion rings For those working to combat criminal organizations, this book is an essential guide to best practices. Criminal Enterprise Investigation provides the theory, techniques, and real-world examples necessary to overcome criminal activity for those of any level of expertise, from seasoned criminal justice professionals to those just beginning their careers.

All too often, professional investigations fail because those involved jump to conclusions and draw faulty premises that leave the trail cold. Correct conclusions are not the result of guessing, but by applying efficient thought processes. Logical Investigative Methods: Critical Thinking and Reasoning for Successful Investigations is designed to help investigators, detectives, special agents, and prosecutors avoid assumptions and false premises by using logic, reasoning, critical thinking, and the scientific method in their investigations. Topics covered in this text include: Finding facts instead of making assumptions Understanding how our cognitive skills can affect investigations Using philosophy and logic to come to proper conclusions and probable inferences Using critical thinking and logical reasoning effectively Outlining the criminal investigation skills required of detectives and investigators Profiling to analyze personality types and to interpret artifacts of a crime scene Interviewing, interrogation, and detecting deception Using tools to analyze and graphically display organized, understandable information about complex crimes Documenting and presenting a case using all of the tools learned This organized text of methods, practices, techniques, and tactics provides concrete instruction that can be applied to any investigation. By learning to become trained observers who make logical inferences from their observations, users of this text can effectively streamline their investigations for a successful result.

This book discusses privatization of law enforcement in relation to suspected corporate crime and recommends guidelines for successful fraud examinations. There is a growing business for global auditing and local law firms to conduct internal investigations at client organizations when there is suspicion of white-collar misconduct and crime. This book reflects on the work by these private fraud examiners in terms of an evaluation of their investigation reports. The book brings an original theoretical and methodological approach to investigations of white-collar crime. It develops the theory of convenience as an explanation for motive, opportunity, and willingness to commit and conceal white-collar crime. This theory is then related to the case studies. Structured in such a way as to allow the reader to use the text as a nonsequential reference source or guide to a set of connected issues, the book illustrates the practice of privatization by cases and presents guidelines for successful fraud examination. As an investigation can lead to conviction and incarceration, this privatization of crime investigation feeds into the larger issue of privatization of policing. The work will be a valuable resource for students, academics, and practitioners working in the areas of Criminal Justice, Corporate Law, and Business.

Observe someone without being observed.
Dig up long-buried dirt.
Catch a cheating spouse.

"The Everything Private Investigation Book" shows you the basic research techniques and tricks the pros use. You'll learn how to get background information using a wide range of sources, including newspapers, court records, military files, and even the DMV. Written by experienced investigators, this guide helps you to: Use the Internet to get information on anyone and anythingConduct background checks for prospective employees or tenantsUncover hidden identities and assetsManage a physical or electronic surveillanceProtect privacy and avoid identity theftWhether you're a journalist, an amateur genealogist, a business owner, a landlord, or just curious, you'll find essential information in this guide. In addition to being a valuable resource, "The Everything Private Investigation Book" is also a fascinating read. Even "armchair detectives" will enjoy reading about famous real-life and fictional PIs and the little-known secrets professionals use to crack the case.

Sheila L. Stephens was the first female Alcohol, Tobacco & Firearms (ATF) special agent in the state of Alabama and one of the first in the nation. She recently graduated from Boston University with a master's degree in criminal justice. After leaving the ATF due to injury, Ms. Stephens opened a private investigation/security business. She is a criminal justice professor at Andrew Jackson University and a contributing writer and associate editor of "The Agent," the newsletter of the National Association of Federal Agents (NAFA). Ms. Stephens lives in Bessemer, AL.

The core baseline of Intelligence-led Policing is the aim of increasing efficiency and quality of police work, with a focus on crime analysis and intelligence methods as tools for informed and objective decisions both when conducting targeted, specialized operations and when setting strategic priorities. This book critically addresses the proliferation of intelligence logics within policing from a wide array of scholarly perspectives. It considers questions such as: How are precautionary logics becoming increasingly central in the dominant policing strategies? What kind of challenges will this move entail? What does the criminalization of preparatory acts mean for previous distinctions between crime prevention and crime detection? What are the predominant rationales behind the proactive use of covert cohesive measures in order to prevent attacks on national security? How are new technological measures, increased private partnerships and international cooperation challenging the core nature of police services as the main providers of public safety and security? This book offers new insights by exploring dilemmas, legal issues and questions raised by the use of new policing methods and the blurred and confrontational lines that can be observed between prevention, intelligence and investigation in police work.

There are no villains here. Award-winning journalist Paul McNally finds corrupt cops, drug dealers, vigilante residents, addicts, torturers, murderers and cops partnered with drug dealers. But no villains.

Raymond is a shop owner on Ontdekkers Road, in Johannesburg, who takes a baseball bat to the dealers when they break his rules. He systematically records in his notebook the police officers who come – all day, every day – to collect their bribe money from the dealers, and is looking for someone to trust. Khaba is a middle-aged police officer who wants a quiet life but whose demons will not leave him in peace. He is trying to regain his trust in what he once regarded as an honourable profession. Wendy is a petite, ageing police reservist who can handle an R5 rifle with confidence, but not the sadness that accompanies her in her daily life – the loss of her police officer husband, brutally murdered by a drug lord, and the addiction that has her adult son in its grip. She is looking for respect and affirmation and for her own life to have meaning.

Through different paths, the lives of Raymond, Khaba and Wendy intersect on the street as their attention is focused on the current power couple – a drug dealer named Obi and Lerato, a police officer. Seemingly untouchable, Obi and Lerato terrorise Ontdekkers, and in the process upset the balance of this already lawless world.

Shocking, grim, frightening, Curt Gentry s masterful portrait of America s top policeman is a unique political biography. From more than 300 interviews and over 100,000 pages of previously classified documents, Gentry reveals exactly how a paranoid director created the fraudulent myth of an invincible, incorruptible FBI. For almost fifty years, Hoover held virtually unchecked public power, manipulating every president from Franklin D. Roosevelt to Richard Nixon. He kept extensive blackmail files and used illegal wiretaps and hidden microphones to destroy anyone who opposed him. The book reveals how Hoover helped create McCarthyism, blackmailed the Kennedy brothers, and influenced the Supreme Court; how he retarded the civil rights movement and forged connections with mobsters; and what part he played in the investigations of President John F. Kennedy and Martin Luther King Jr. A New York Times bestseller. "This massive new study promises to be the most extensive and controversial yet. . . . A chilling look at the darker side of American politics." Library Journal"

Contract and procurement fraud, collusion, and corruption are worldwide problems. Such wrongdoing causes federal, state, and local governments, as well as private-sector corporations and businesses, to lose funds and profits, while the wrongdoers unjustly benefit. Bid riggers conspire to eliminate fair and open competition and unjustly increase prices, allowing some to monopolize industries. Too often, contracting officials and others responsible for placing orders or awarding contracts compromise their integrity and eliminate fair and open competition to favor vendors offering bribes or gifts. This results in unfair playing fields for vendors and causes financial losses for businesses, government agencies, and taxpayers. Charles Piper's Contract and Procurement Fraud and Corruption Investigation Guidebook educates readers on fraud and corruption schemes that occur before, during, and after contracts are awarded. This book teaches not only how to identify such wrongdoing, but also how to investigate it and prevent reoccurrence. Piper shares the Piper Method of Conducting Thorough and Complete Investigations, his innovative and proven method of investigating contract and procurement fraud, and demonstrates its principles with personal, on-the-job examples (which he calls "War Stories") woven throughout the text. Intended for criminal justice students, as well as investigators, auditors, examiners, business owners, policy-makers, and other professionals potentially affected by fraud, this book is a must-read guide to effective procurement and contract fraud investigations from inception to testimony.

'The powerful story of a woman who was ahead of her time' Mishal Husain, presenter at BBC World News, BBC Weekend News, BBC News at Six, Radio 4 A beautiful woman in winged eyeliner and a low-cut top lies on a bed urging her favourite cricketer to win the next match. In another post, she pouts at the camera from a hot tub. She posts a selfie with a cleric, wearing his cap at a jaunty angle. Her posts are viewed millions of times and the comments beneath them are full of hate. As her notoriety grows, the comments made about her on national talk shows are just as vitriolic. They call her Pakistan's Kim Kardashian, they say she'll do anything for attention. When she's murdered, they're transfixed by the footage of her body. Drawing on interviews and in-depth research, Sanam Maher pieces together Qandeel's life from the village where she grew up in the backwaters of rural Pakistan, to her stint in a women's shelter after escaping her marriage, to her incarnation as a social media sensation and the Muslim world's most unlikely feminist icon.

Techniques in the investigative interviewing and interrogation of victims, witnesses and suspects of crime vary around the world, according to a country's individual legal system, religion and culture. Whereas some countries have developed certain interview protocols for witnesses (such as the ABE Guidelines and the NICHD protocol when interviewing children) and the PEACE model of interviewing suspects, other countries continue to use physical coercion and other questionable tactics to elicit information. Until now, there has been very little empirical information about the overall interview and interrogation practices in non-western countries, especially the Middle and Far East. This book addresses this gap, bringing together international experts from over 25 countries and providing in-depth coverage of the various interview and interrogation techniques used across the globe. Volume 2 focuses on the interviewing of crime suspects, aiming to provide the necessary information for an understanding of how law enforcement agencies around the world gain valuable information from suspects in criminal cases. Together, the chapters that make up this volume and the accompanying volume on interviewing witnesses and victims, draw on specific national case studies and practices, examine contemporary challenges and identify best practice to enable readers to develop an international, as well as a comparative, perspective of developments worldwide in this important area of criminal investigation. This book will be an essential resource for academics and students engaged in the study of policing, criminal investigation, forensic psychology and criminal law. It will also be of great interest to practitioners, legal professionals and policymakers around the world.

Techniques in the investigative interviewing and interrogation of victims, witnesses and suspects of crime vary around the world, according to a country's individual legal system, religion and culture. Whereas some countries have developed certain interview protocols for witnesses (such as the ABE Guidelines and the NICHD protocol when interviewing children) and the PEACE model of interviewing suspects, other countries continue to use physical coercion and other questionable tactics to elicit information. Until now, there has been very little empirical information about the overall interview and interrogation practices in non-western countries, especially the Middle and Far East. This book addresses this gap, bringing together international experts from over 25 countries and providing in-depth coverage of the various interview and interrogation techniques used across the globe. Volume 1 focuses on the interviewing of victims and witnesses, aiming to provide the necessary information for an understanding of how law enforcement agencies around the world gain valuable information from victims and witnesses in criminal cases. Together, the chapters that make up this volume and the accompanying volume on interviewing suspects, draw on specific national case studies and practices, examine contemporary challenges and identify best practice to enable readers to develop an international, as well as a comparative, perspective of developments worldwide in this important area of criminal investigation. This book will be an essential resource for academics and students engaged in the study of policing, criminal investigation, forensic psychology and criminal law. It will also be of great interest to practitioners, legal professionals and policymakers around the world.

Well-informed and skilled interviewing is a key factor in dealing with suspects, victims and witnesses. Experienced police and investigators know this from their own practice, and there is now a substantial body of research and theory in psychology which supports this practice and can guide both training and the development of investigative work. The purpose of this book is to provide a concise and clearly written guide to the psychological concepts and research-based knowledge that can support and guide investigative interviewing. It deals in particular with:

• good basic practice and methods for investigative interviewing
• how to deal with false confessions and unreliable or incomplete witness information
• the special problems of interviewing children and other vulnerable people
• the process of interviewing suspects, victims, witnesses, complainants and colleagues

This book will be of interest and value to a wide range of professionals involved in training and practice in the police or other agencies, as well as social workers,lawyers, psychologists and psychiatrists involved in forensic work. "The strength of this book lies in its relevance for both practice and research in investigative interviewing, not only in Britain but internationally. Based on psychological theory and research, it provides practitioners with a wealth of information and specific guidelines to help improve their interviewing skills. Researchers are challenged to address some of the, as yet, unanswered questions." Janet Jackson, Netherlands Institute for the Study of Criminality and Law Enforcement, Leiden, The Netherlands This book is published in the Wiley Series in the Psychology of Crime, Policing and Law Series Editors: professor Professor Graham Davies University of Leicester, UK, and Professor Ray Bull University of Portsmouth, UK