Putting Health into Place draws together original works that collectively argue for a reinvention of medical geography. There is a growing interest worldwide in relationships between human health and the experience of place, an interest driven both by developments in sociocultural theory and observed health concerns. This book is a resource for those wishing to explore or to teach beyond the frontiers of conventional medical geography. As the first word of the book's title suggests, this is an active volume, one that contributes to situating health in the simultaneously tangible, negotiated, and experienced realities of place. Robin A. Kearns and Wilbert M. Gesler argue that medical issues are a necessary but insufficient focus in developing geographies of health and healing. This contention is supported by the authors of the thirteen substantive chapters who convey research findings from the Americas, Britain, and the Pacific. This book represents a collective commitment to exploring links between social and cultural theory, ideas about place, and discourses on health that will be of interest to readers across the social and health sciences.

This text looks at illness and death in Britain as something very dependant upon the whole environment. It adopts the environmental and geographical approach to the study of diseases and death from Medieval to modern times. Maps illustrate the favourable or unfavourable mortality experience of different parts of the country. This scientific study is aimed at the non-expert, to show the way in which the health of the British people is, and has been, influenced by (i)their racial history, blood groups, genes, and (ii)the environment - physical (weather, water, soils), biological (bacteria, viruses, pollen, fungi) and human (housing, food, drugs, pollution, noise, tabacco, alcohol, life-style, social environment). The way in which certain affilictions such as plague, cholera, tuberculosis, smallpox and so on have been, and still are more commonly suffered by the residents of one city, county or region than by others, is comprehensively studied - at various stages throughout British history.

Evaluates the carcinogenic risk to humans posed by exposure to fourteen industrial chemicals, including several having considerable commercial importance as the building blocks of widely used polymers and copolymers. While some of these chemicals are evaluated for the first time, the majority have been re-evaluated in the light of substantial new data and more precise methodological guidelines for the interpretation of findings. In view of the widespread industrial use of these chemicals, particular emphasis is placed on the risk of cancer in occupationally exposed workers. Over 1,800 studies were critically assessed. The most extensive monographs cover ethylene oxide, styrene, and acrylamide. Ethylene oxide is an important raw material for making major consumer goods in virtually all industrialized countries. On the basis of evidence of small but consistent excesses of lymphatic and haematopoietic cancer found in both human and animal studies, the monograph concludes that ethylene oxide is carcinogenic to humans. For styrene, one of the most important monomers worldwide, the evaluation concentrated on evidence of a link between exposure and the risk for lymphatic and haematopoietic cancer, concluding that styrene is possibly carcinogenic to humans. Acrylamide was classified as probably carcinogenic to humans. Among the other chemicals evaluated, styrene-7,8-oxide was classified as probably carcinogenic to humans. Propylene oxide, isoprene, 4-vinylcyclohexene, and 4-vinylcyclo-hexene diepoxide were classified as possibly carcinogenic. The remaining chemicals, ethylene, propylene, vinyl toluene, N-methylol-acrylamide, methyl methacrylate, and 2-ethylhexyl acrylate, could not be classified. For two of these, methyl methacrylate and vinyl toluene, experimental evidence indicated a lack of carcinogenicity.

The practice of performing and managing regulatory air toxic risk assessments requires an exceptionally broadbase of understanding. The information and hands-on skills needed to evaluate the effects of air toxic emissions on human health derive from a broad range of disciplines: engineering, the physical and biological sciences, probability, statistics, and medicine. Dr. Lawrence Gratt's Air Toxic Risk Assessment and Management provides a comprehensive study of the subject of risk assessment, showing how the various disciplines are integrated to carry out this complex process. No other resource combines the basic science underlying risk assessment with the techniques needed to perform the analyses.

Evaluates the risks to human health and the environment posed by exposure to alpha- and beta-hexachlorocyclohexanes (HCH). These two isomers are by-products in the manufacturing of lindane, and may be present in this pesticide as impurities. Alpha- and beta-HCH are also present in technical-grade HCH, which is used in agriculture and wood protection. Most environmental releases are linked to the use of technical-grade HCH and to the inappropriate disposal of residues produced when lindane is purified.

Evaluates the risks to human health and the environment posed by lindane, an isomer of hexachlorocyclohexane used, for more than four decades, as a broad-spectrum insecticide. Although most lindane is used in agriculture for the treatment of seeds and soils, other important applications include the protection of wood and timber, the treatment of veterinary ectoparasites, and the treatment of scabies and body lice in humans.

Evaluates the risks to human health and the environment posed by two partially halogenated chlorofluorocarbons: dichlorofluoromethane (HCFC 21) and chlorodifluoromethane (HCFC 22). These two methane derivatives were selected for evaluation because of their potential use as substitutes for those fully halogenated chlorofluorocarbons that are being phased out as a result of the 1987 Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer. The evaluation is intended to assist industry in its urgent search for acceptable substitute chemicals, most notably for use as refrigerants, as propellants in aerosols, and as blowing agents for the production of polystyrene. While data on human toxicity are thoroughly reviewed, the greatest challenge is to find the most accurate models for predicting levels of release to the environment and estimating the potential of these chemicals to deplete the ozone layer.

Evaluates occupational exposures to mists and vapours from strong inorganic acids: and other industrial chemicals.

Recent articles in the press have explored a possible link between cancer and such familiar sources of electromagnetic fields as power distribution lines or electronic appliances. In this book a distinguished physicist evaluates the properties of low-frequency electromagnetic fields and their interactions with the human body and concludes that the health risks from these interactions have been vastly overstated. William Ralph Bennett, Jr., reviews the epidemiological evidence for a link between low-frequency electromagnetic fields and cancer. He then reviews the basic properties of these fields, outlining the simplest methods for calculating and measuring them and illustrating his discussion with original data on the electromagnetic fields produced by power lines, electrified railroads, common household appliances, video display terminals, television sets, and airport metal detectors. He considers the specific ways by which electric and magnetic fields couple to the body; compares these fields with others of much greater magnitude that must exist inside the body because of thermodynamic processes; and analyzes several resonance mechanisms that have been proposed to explain unusual sensitivity of biological tissue to low-frequency oscillating fields. A glossary and numerous tables and figures accompany the text. The book is based on a study by the author for the U.S. Government's Committee on Interagency Radiation Research and Policy Coordination that was coordinated by Oak Ridge Associated Universities.

Evaluates risks to human health and the environment posed by the use of beryllium, a brittle metal having major applications in the electronics and micro-electronics industries, in nuclear energy, and in the production of military devices, including satellites, missiles, atomic bombs, and other weapons. Beryllium has also proved its superiority as a structural material for aircraft and spacecraft.

Evaluates risks to human health and the environment posed by the production and use of tri-n-butyl phosphate. Tri-n-butyl phosphate is widely used worldwide as a solvent for cellulose esters, lacquers, and natural gums, as a primary plasticizer in the manufacture of plastics and vinyl resins, in the formulation of fire-resistant aircraft hydraulic fluids, and as an antifoaming agent, mainly in paper manufacturing plants.

Evaluates risks to human health and the environment posed by the widespread production and use of methyl isobutyl ketone as a solvent, with major applications in the production of lacquers and paint solvents, including car and industrial spray paints. Methyl isobutyl ketone also occurs naturally in food, is a permitted flavouring agent, and is used in food contact packaging materials. Sections concerned with the behaviour of methyl isobutyl ketone in the environment note its rapid evaporation into the atmosphere, rapid photo-transformation, ready biodegradation, and low potential for bioaccumulation. A review of data on metabolic pathways and toxicity to organisms concludes that production and use of this chemical pose no threat to wildlife or the environment, except in the case of accidental spills or inappropriate disposal of wastes.

A dissection of the Soviet Union's legacy of health and environmental disaster, this book examines a former country of 103 cities - home to 70 million people - where the air is unfit to breathe and pollution fouls 75 percent of the water.

Evaluates risks to human health and the environment posed by the production and use of dimethylformamide, an organic solvent produced in large quantities throughout the world. Dimethylformamide is widely used in the chemical industry as a solvent, an intermediate, and an additive, with the largest quantities used in the production of acrylic fibres and polyurethanes. Dimethylformamide is also used in the production of pharmaceutical products.

Evaluates risks to human health and the environment posed by the production, use, and disposal of hexachlorocyclopentadiene (HEX). HEX is a chemical used in the production of several pesticides, including heptachlor, chlordane, aldrin, dieldrin, endrin, mirex, pentac, and endosulfan. The compound is also used as an intermediate in the manufacturing of flame retardants and dyes.

Evaluates risks to human health and the environment posed by the production and use of triphenyl phosphate, a compound widely used as a flame retardant in phenolic and phenylene-oxide-based resins for the manufacture of electrical and automobile components. Triphenyl phosphate is also used as a non-flammable plasticizer in cellulose acetate for photographic films, and as a component of hydraulic fluids and lubricant oils.

Evaluates the risks to human health and the environment posed by exposure to isobenzan. This cyclodiene insecticide was manufactured in the Netherlands from 1958 to 1965 and used from existing stocks for several years thereafter. Present sources of human and environmental exposure are restricted to the original waste-disposal sites and to polders which were built up using mud dredged from contaminated harbour areas. Although recent research on this insecticide has been limited, the report draws heavily on a number of proprietary toxicological studies made available by the manufacturer.

Evaluates the risks to human health and the environment posed by the mining, refining, industrial use, and recycling of platinum and selected platinum compounds. Because of its exceptional catalytic properties, resistance to chemical corrosion, and high mechanical strength, platinum is widely used in the chemical and petroleum industries, most notably in the production of catalysts, including devices for reducing hazardous gas emissions. The growing use of catalytic converters to reduce pollution from automobile exhausts has caused a sharp increase in the world demand for this metal. Compounds such as cisplatin also have important therapeutic applications.

Evaluates the risks to human health and the environment posed by the production and use of 2-propanol, a liquid widely used as a low-cost solvent in industry and in the home. Because of its cooling, antipyretic, rubefacient, cleaning, and antiseptic properties, 2-propanol is used to produce a large number of household and personal products, including topically applied pharmaceutical products and cosmetics.

Evaluates the risks to human health and the environment posed by the mining, processing, and industrial use of barium. The opening sections review both natural and man-made sources of release into the environment, including nuclear fallout following the testing of weapons. A section on environmental behaviour notes the contribution of industrial emissions, especially from the combustion of coal and diesel oil, to the presence of barium in air. Particular concern centres on concentrations found in water, where barium may have a residence time of several hundred years. Water supplies and food are identified as the most important routes of exposure for the general population. Other sections review what is known about the kinetics and metabolism of barium, discuss its capacity to mimic the role of calcium in many physiological processes, and consider effects on organisms in the environment, including effects on the infectivity of several viruses.

Evaluates the risks to human health and the environment posed by exposure to acrolein, a chemical produced in large quantities and used as an intermediate in the synthesis of several chemicals, most notably acrylic acid and its esters and DL-methionine, an essential amino acid used as a feed supplement for poultry and cattle. Acrolein also has direct application as an aquatic biocide used against algae, molluscs, and herbs in recirculating process water systems, irrigation channels, cooling water towers, and water treatment ponds. Acrolein accounts for about 3 to 10% of total automobile exhaust aldehydes, 1 to 13% of total wood-smoke aldehydes, and up to 7% of the aldehydes in cigarette smoke. The report notes that exposure of the general population occurs mainly via air, with mainstream and sidestream tobacco smoke representing the most important source. Other sources of exposure include inhalation of air polluted by vehicle exhausts, direct contact with acrolein-treated water, and consumption of alcoholic beverages and certain food items. Concerning effects on the environment, the report cites studies documenting adverse effects on crops grown on soil irrigated by acrolein-treated water, and a very high toxicity for bacteria, algae, crustacea, and fish, with bacteria being the most sensitive species. Acrolein is noted to threaten aquatic life at or near sites of industrial discharge or spills and in areas where acrolein is used as a biocide.

Evaluates risks to human health and the environment posed by the use of tributyltin compounds as molluscicides, as antifoulants on boats, ships, quays, buoys, and equipment in the fishing industry, as wood preservatives, and as slimicides on masonry. These compounds pose a particular threat to the marine environment in view of their documented high toxicity to aquatic organisms, including commercially important shellfish.

Evaluates risks to human health and the environment posed by the production and use of tricresyl phosphate. Tricresyl phosphate is used in industry as a plasticizer in vinyl plastic manufacture, as a flame-retardant, as a solvent for nitrocellulose, in cellulosic molding compositions, and in the manufacture of fire-resistant hydraulic fluids and lubricants. Because of the physico-chemical properties of tricresyl phosphate and its rapid biodegradation, the report concludes that use of the compound does not threaten the environment, though there is some evidence that crop plants can be affected by tri-o-cresyl phosphate released from plastic coverings. A section devoted to kinetics and metabolism concentrates on mechanisms of absorption, distribution, metabolism, and elimination that can help explain the well-documented neuropathic actions of tricresyl phosphate and, most notably, its highly toxic isomer, tri-o-cresyl phosphate. The most extensive section assesses findings from toxicity studies, emphasizing the large number of studies documenting neurotoxic effects, often at very low doses. These effects are further characterized through a review of the numerous reported cases of large-scale human poisoning following the ingestion of accidentally or deliberately contaminated medicines and foodstuffs. Readers are given detailed information on the clinical symptoms of poisoning, the characteristics of delayed neuropathy, long-term prognosis, and advice on the first-aid treatment of victims. While the concluding section notes that use of tricresyl phosphate poses very little risk to either the environment or the general population, the report underscores the severity and long-duration of the neuropathology caused by accidental poisoning, noting that some victims never recover.

Evaluates the risks to human health and the environment posed by exposure to monochlorobenzene, dichlorobenzenes, trichlorobenzenes, tetrachlorobenzenes, and pentachlorobenzene. These chemicals are produced in huge quantities for use as intermediates in the synthesis of pesticides and in the production of a wide range of consumer and commercial products. A review of data on sources of environmental exposure notes that release to the environment occurs primarily during manufacture and that incineration of chlorobenzenes may lead to the emission of polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and dibenzofurans. Sections concerned with sources and levels of human exposure conclude that the general population is exposed to the lower chlorinated congeners mainly through inhalation, whereas a greater proportion of the total daily intake of the higher chlorinated compounds is ingested in food; breast-fed babies may receive a higher dose than adults. Particular concern centres on risks of human exposure arising from the ingestion of contaminated fish and from contaminated indoor air linked to use of these compounds as moth repellents and air fresheners.

Evaluates close to 900 studies in an effort to determine the role of various nickel compounds as environmental hazards and causes of human diseases, including cancer. A special effort is made to determine the specific exposure levels for nickel and nickel compounds that pose a threat to the environment, the general public, and workers exposed to nickel-containing dusts and fumes. A section on sources of exposure evaluates both natural and man-made releases into the environment, offering especially detailed information on emissions associated with the nickel industry, the combustion of fossil fuels, and the incineration of sewage sludge and waste. Exposure of the general population is noted to occur via inhaled air, ingestion of food and drinking-water, and dermal contact, particularly with jewellery and coins.