This publication seeks to provide a framework for selecting and validating biomarkers for risk assessment. Initial chapters consider the role of biomarkers in risk assessment and their validity. A biomarker is any substance, structure or process that can be measured in the body or its products, and influence or predict the incidence of outcome or disease. Biomarkers can be classified into markers of exposure, effect and susceptibility. If biomarkers are to contribute to environmental and occupational health risk assessments, they have to be relevant and valid. Relevance refers to the appropriateness of biomarkers to provide information on questions of interest and importance to public and environmental health authorities and other decision-makers. The validity of a biomarker is a function of intrinsic qualities of the biomarker and characteristics of the analytic procedures. Additionally, three broad categories of validity can be distinguished: measurement validity, internal study validity and external validity. Measurement validity is the degree to which a biomarker indicates what it purports to indicate. Internal study validity is the degree to which inferences drawn from a study actually pertain to study subjects and are true. External validity is the extent to which findings of a study can be generalized to apply to other populations. Subsequent chapters examine the validation of specific types of biomarkers and cross-species comparability. Supporting the main text are four extensive appendices covering the following subjects: 1. Biomarkers of exposure and effect for carcinogenicity 2. Biomarkers of exposure and effect for non-carcinogenic end-points 3. Measurement of drug metabolizing enzyme polymorphisms as indicators of susceptibility 4. Validation of biomarkers for environmental health research and risk assessment

This publication summarizes the scientific knowledge base on which principles and methods involved in neurotoxicity risk assessment are based. It is aimed at providing a framework for public health officials, research and regulatory scientists and risk managers on the use and interpretation of neurotoxicity data from human and animal studies and it discusses emerging methodological approaches to studying neurotoxicity. The introductory chapter examines definitions and critical concepts in neurotoxicity and looks at the criteria for quality of data used in risk assessment. This is followed by a detailed discussion of the structure and function of the nervous system, of the special susceptibilities of the human fetus, children and the elderly and of the types of effects on the nervous system. Recent progress in developing validated methods for detecting neurotoxicity in humans is investigated, as is our understanding of the factors that affect the validity and reliability of human neurotoxicological studies. Sources of human data include accidental and occupational exposures, case-studies, clinical evaluations, epidemiological studies, and field and laboratory studies. Standardized neuropsychological tests, validated computer-assisted test batteries, neurophysiological and biochemical tests, and refined imaging techniques have been improved and become well established. The most extensive section reviews data derived from experimental animal models. Batteries of functional tests have been developed, validated and used extensively in neurotoxicological studies. Many different types of behavioural tests have been used to assess chemical-induced changes in sensory, motor and cognitive function, whereas neurophysiological measures have been standardized to assess chemical-induced sensory and motor function. The final chapter examines the steps involved in neurotoxicity risk assessment: hazard identification, dose-response assessment, exposure assessment and risk characterization. The application of risk assessment principles for neurotoxicants is similar to that of other non-cancer end-points, except that issues of reversibility, compensation and recovery of function in the nervous system require special consideration. This document provides guidance on neurotoxicity risk assessment at a broad international level.

This book evaluates the risks to human health and the environment posed by arsenic and arsenic compounds. Arsenic is widely distributed in the earth's crust and is emitted into the atmosphere by coal-fired power generation plants and volcanic activity. Inorganic arsenic of geological origin is found in groundwater, which is used as drinking-water in several parts of the world, e.g. Bangladesh. In these areas, drinking-water is the main source of arsenic intake, but elsewhere food is the principal source.

Evaluates the risks to human health and the environment posed by exposure to dinitro-"ortho"-cresol, a chemical used for over a century as an acaricide, larvicide, and ovicide to control the dormant forms of many insects in orchards. The chemical is also sprayed on potatoes to prevent virus and disease contamination of the tubers. Although the chemical's use as a pesticide has been banned in many countries, significant volumes of obsolete stocks are still found in several parts of the world, especially in developing countries. Dinitro-"ortho"-cresol continues to be used in the plastics industry as an inhibitor of polymerization in styrene and vinyl aromatic compounds. Concerning environmental behavior studies indicate that the chemical is rapidly biodegraded in soil and has no potential to volatilize when released to water. Evidence further suggests that uptake by treated fruit trees or potatoes leaving residues at harvest time does not occur. Food is therefore not considered an important source of exposure for the general population. Occupational exposures during agricultural spraying and during manufacturing and formulation are regarded as the principal sources of human exposure. The most extensive part evaluates the results of toxicity studies in laboratory mammals and "in vitro "test systems. Short-term dietary administration decreased body-weight gain in some species, usually without significant alteration in food consumption. At high doses, adverse effects on the liver have been observed. Data on embryotoxicity, teratogenicity, mutagenicity, and carcinogenicity were judged inadequate for evaluation. The evaluation of effects on human health draws on data obtained during the limited use of dinitro-"ortho"-cresol in the 1930s as a therapeutic agent for the treatment of obesity and on cases of acute poisoning. Symptoms associated with toxicity include restlessness, flushed skin, sweating, thirst, deep and rapid respiration, severe increase of body temperature, and cyanosis leading to collapse, coma, and death. Concerning adverse effects on occupationally exposed workers, the report cites a dramatic decline over the last 25 years in reported cases of occupational intoxication. The decline is attributed to better education of users, the use of adequate protective equipment, and improvements in application techniques, equipment, and formulations. The report concludes that when used according to registered recommendations, and when measures for personal protection are followed, exposure to dinitro-"ortho"-cresol is reduced to levels that do not cause systemic toxicity.

AN ESSENTIAL CONVERSATION FROM TODAY'S LEADING VOICES ON EFFECTING CHANGE IN HEALTH AND SOCIETY "The Robert Wood Johnson Foundation has changed the conversation about health in the United States." -Jo Ivey Boufford, President, New York Academy of Medicine In a society where a person's zip code is a stronger predictor of health status than their genetic profile, every public health challenge is also a challenge of equity, implementation, and policy. For better or worse, improving health requires societal change, and the scale of today's societal challenges can have a stifling effect on even the most well-intended efforts. Assembled by the Robert Wood Johnson Foundation and featuring today's most prominent voices from diverse sectors, Knowledge to Action is a collection of short conversations focused on the idea of meaningful change - its definition, its impediments, and exploring how we can transition from research to action in health, well-being, and equity. Steeped in honesty and benefiting from the diverse experiences of an extraordinary assembly of academics, journalists, policymakers, public health practitioners, and researchers, this book offers provocative yet actionable perspectives that will benefit anyone who reads it.

This book offers an up-to-date guide to the concepts, procedures, statistical methods and models used to assess human exposure to environmental chemicals. Noting that exposure assessment is a comparatively new discipline of the environmental sciences, the book aims to encourage its use as a powerful tool for measuring actual levels of exposure and determining whether interventions are needed to protect public health. With this goal in mind, the book gives researchers expert advice on the design and conduct of studies, the interpretation of findings, and the best methods for ensuring the reliability and reproducibility of results. Throughout, emphasis is placed on the ways in which well-designed exposure assessments can enhance the practical value of findings from traditional epidemiological and toxicological investigations. The book has twelve chapters. The first six cover conceptual and methodological issues. Chapter one introduces basic concepts used in exposure assessment, and describes direct and indirect methods of measuring or estimating actual exposure and determining whether intervention is required. The uses of human exposure data are covered in chapter two, which explains how studies of human exposure can reduce the uncertainty of estimates used in epidemiology, risk assessment and risk management. Chapter three considers several generic study designs and approaches, and compares their advantages and limitations. Chapter four, on statistical methods, discusses selective applications of descriptive and inferential statistics, using data on lead exposure as an example. Subsequent chapters review methods for the collection and application of time-use data and introduce the principles, methods and data requirements of exposure modeling. Against this background, chapters in the second half of the book offer practical advice on the design and conduct of studies aimed at assessing exposure to chemicals in different environmental media. Separate chapters describe sampling methods used to analyze chemical concentrations in air, water, and food, and in soil and settled dust. Environmental allergens that can contribute to disease or alter susceptibility are considered in chapter nine, which concentrates on methods for measuring particles from house dust mites and their feces, allergens from pets and cockroaches, and allergens or toxins from fungi, bacteria and pollen. Subsequent chapters describe the use of biological markers in exposure assessment, and discuss issues surrounding the quality assurance of exposure studies and results. The final chapter presents brief summaries and examples of exposure studies in order to illustrate different study designs for different objectives, target pollutants, and populations. Studies that show how exposure assessment supports epidemiology and risk management, particularly in developing countries, are also included.

A state-of-the-art review of methods and procedures for assessing the risks to human health posed by environmental chemicals. Addressed to regulatory authorities, risk managers and other decision-makers, the book aims to demystify the principles of risk assessment and thus encourage wider use of this powerful tool for protecting populations. Since the detection of chemical hazards may have socioeconomic and political consequences, the book gives particular attention to methods for the accurate identification of risks and determination of their severity. The book has four chapters covering each logical step in the process of risk assessment. The first, on hazard identification, explains how data on a chemical's toxicity and mode of action can be used to determine whether the chemical will cause adverse effects on health. The strengths and limitations of different types of data are discussed together with criteria commonly used to establish causality. Methods for assessing dose-response relationships are reviewed in chapter two, which explains how to characterize the relationship between the dose administered or received and the incidence of an adverse effect. Exposure assessment is covered in the next chapter, which describes methods for determining the nature and extent of contact with chemical substances and discusses the characteristics of exposure in the general environment, in the workplace, and from consumer products. The final chapter explains the procedure of risk characterization as a decision-making tool that brings together estimates of exposure levels and risks and summarizes sources of uncertainty in the scientific data. Practical options for risk management are presented asa range of regulatory, non-regulatory, economic, and technological measures.

Evaluates the findings of close to 600 studies aimed at determining whether the health risks associated with tobacco use are enhanced by co-exposure to numerous chemical, biological, and physical agents commonly found in the workplace. Co-exposures in the domestic and general environment, which are especially important in newly industrializing countries, are also considered in this comprehensive review. Although all forms of tobacco use are covered, particular attention is given to risks arising from exposure to mainstream and sidestream smoke from cigarettes. The book has four chapters. The first summarizes what is known about the health risks caused by tobacco use. A brief overview of the history of tobacco use is followed by a detailed explanation of the chemistry of processed tobacco and the many toxic compounds found in tobacco and in mainstream and sidestream smoke. The chapter also includes an overview of all documented acute and chronic adverse effects of tobacco, including smokeless tobacco. The second and most extensive chapter evaluates the evidence on health effects caused by interactions between tobacco smoke and asbestos, non-asbestos fibres, seven inorganic chemicals, five organic chemical agents, including ethanol, four physical agents, and seven biological agents, including two widespread infectious agents. The chapter also includes an explanation of the concept of interaction and how it can be measured, a discussion of vector effects, whereby cigarettes become contaminated with toxic chemicals in the workplace, and a review of data indicating that tobacco smoking can alter the metabolism of therapeutic drugs and other chemicals. Chapter three considers whether adverseeffects following co-exposure to tobacco smoke and other agents are separate effects or possible interactions. The report found evidence for synergism in the production of adverse effects, including cancer, between tobacco smoking and exposure to asbestos, ethanol, silica, and radiation. The report also found evidence that tobacco smoking affects the health risks of exposure in coal mining, pesticide handling, and in the rubber and petroleum industries. In addition, tobacco smoking can increase the risk of byssinosis produced by exposure to cotton dust, and nasal cancer caused by exposure to wood dusts. On the basis of this evaluation, the final chapter concludes that all possible measures should be taken to eliminate tobacco use, particularly smoking. To avoid interaction with occupational exposure and to eliminate hazards arising from exposure to environmental tobacco smoke, the report concludes that smoking in the workplace should be prohibited.

Summarizes current understanding of the complex interactions between chemicals, the immune system, and target organs that lead to manifestations of allergic hypersensitivity and autoimmunity. Noting that the incidence of allergic disorders has increased significantly in many countries, the book responds to the urgent need to improve methods for detecting potential allergens and predicting their effects in both individuals and populations. The need for better preventive strategies and therapeutic options is also considered, particularly in view of the high costs of allergic disorders in terms of health care and time lost from work. Addressed to researchers, the book concentrates on what is known about the mechanisms of sensitization and autoimmunity elicited by numerous industrial chemicals, adjuvant environmental factors, such as air pollution, tobacco smoke, and ultraviolet radiation, and food allergens with a proven involvement of the immune system. Although a large number of allergies are covered, particular attention is given to asthma and contact dermatitis as major occupational diseases undergoing intensive investigation. Throughout, a special effort is made to identify lines of investigation that will lead to a better understanding of fundamental mechanisms and thus improve the prospects for treatment and prevention. Over 1000 references to the literature are included. The book opens with a detailed explanation of the structure and functional processes of the immune system, followed by a discussion of the mechanisms by which chemicals can disrupt these functions. Also discussed are fundamental concepts of immunosuppression, immunodeficiency, and immunological tolerance that helpexplain the mechanistic basis of sensitization, allergic responses, and autoimmunity. Chapter two provides an overview of mechanisms involved in four major types of hypersensitivity and in autoimmunity. Mechanisms are illustrated with examples of diseases - from occupational asthma, through myasthenia gravis, to chronic beryllium disease - where exposure to environmental chemicals might play a role. The numerous hypotheses put forward to explain the mechanisms of autoimmune reactions are also critically assessed. Factors influencing allergenicity are covered in chapter three, which concentrates on the many complex endogenous and exogenous factors that govern the induction of allergic responses. Against this background, chapter four discusses clinical aspects of the most important allergic diseases. These include allergic contact dermatitis, atopic eczema, allergic rhinitis and conjunctivitis, allergic asthma caused by contact with chemicals, food allergy, and autoimmune diseases associated with drugs, chemicals, and environmental factors. Each disease is profiled in terms of its epidemiology, clinical manifestations, etiology, pathogenesis, diagnosis, and strategies for treatment and prevention. The remaining chapters review the epidemiology of asthma and allergic disease, including trends over time in different geographical regions, describe procedures for hazard identification through the demonstration of allergenicity, and explain how the principles of risk assessment can be applied to allergy. The book concludes with a glossary of terms, followed by 15 precise recommendations for the protection of human health and a list of priorities for further research.

This book evaluates the risks to human health and the environment posed by the use of Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) as a microbial agent for pest control. Products containing various Bt subspecies are increasingly used worldwide to control the larvae of several insect pests that threaten major agricultural crops and forests. Bt products are also being used to control the insect vectors of malaria onchocerciasis and other diseases of major public health importance. The bacterium is also a key source of genes for transgenic expression to provide pest resistance in plants and microorganisms. The report opens with an overview of the biological properties of Bt and commercial Bt products. Particular attention is given to the mechanisms by which sporulation produces inclusion bodies containing insecticidal crystalline proteins which are selectively toxic for insect species in the orders Coleoptera Diptera and Lepidoptera. Tables show the current classification of 67 Bt subspecies and the large number of genes coding for the insecticidal crystalline proteins. A review of Bt metabolites found in commercial products concludes that they pose no hazards to humans or the environment. Chapter two reviews data elucidating the mechanisms by which Bt exerts its toxic action on susceptible insect larvae. Data on insect populations that are resistant to Bt are also briefly considered. Chapter three which focuses on the survival and activity of Bt in the environment compares habitats where Bt subspecies occur naturally with treated habitats. Particular attention is given to the ability of Bt to form endospores that are resistant to inactivation by heat and desiccation and that persist in the environment under adverse conditions. A chapter on commercial production describes methods of production and general patterns of use in agriculture and forestry and in large-scale programmes to control the vectors of malaria and onchocerciasis. The most extensive chapter evaluates the large number of studies conducted to assess the toxicity of various preparations containing insecticidal crystalline proteins spores and vegetative cells. Laboratory studies in a range of species have failed to demonstrate toxic or pathogenic effects. Field studies have likewise failed to demonstrate adverse effects on birds earthworms fish other aquatic vertebrates and non-target aquatic invertebrates. An evaluation of effects on humans draws on studies in volunteers case reports from occupationally-exposed workers and extensive data from countries where Bt products are added to drinking-water for mosquito control or used to treat rivers for blackfly control. On the basis of this review the report concludes that Bt products are unlikely to pose any hazard to humans or other vertebrates or to the great majority of non-target invertebrates provided the commercial product is free from non-Bt microorganisms and biologically active products other than the insecticidal crystalline proteins. The report further concludes that Bt products can be safely used for the control of insect pests of agricultural and horticultural crops and forests. These products are likewise judged safe for use in aquatic environments including drinking-water reservoirs for the control of mosquito black fly and nuisance insect larvae. The report stresses however that vegetative Bt has the potential to produce Bacillus cereus-like toxins whose significance as a possible cause of human gastrointestinal disease remains unknown. ...one of the most thorough published reviews of Bacillus thuringiensis ... provides an array of pertinent background material... -- Integrated Pest Management Network

Putting Health into Place draws together original works that collectively argue for a reinvention of medical geography. There is a growing interest worldwide in relationships between human health and the experience of place, an interest driven both by developments in sociocultural theory and observed health concerns. This book is a resource for those wishing to explore or to teach beyond the frontiers of conventional medical geography. As the first word of the book's title suggests, this is an active volume, one that contributes to situating health in the simultaneously tangible, negotiated, and experienced realities of place. Robin A. Kearns and Wilbert M. Gesler argue that medical issues are a necessary but insufficient focus in developing geographies of health and healing. This contention is supported by the authors of the thirteen substantive chapters who convey research findings from the Americas, Britain, and the Pacific. This book represents a collective commitment to exploring links between social and cultural theory, ideas about place, and discourses on health that will be of interest to readers across the social and health sciences.

This book evaluates the risks to human health and the environment posed by exposure to copper, a malleable metal found naturally in a wide variety of mineral salts and organic compounds, and in the metallic form. Copper is an essential element for all biota. It is widely used in cooking utensils and water distribution systems, in fertilizers, bactericides, fungicides, algicides, and antifouling paints, and in animal feed additives and growth promoters. Industrial applications include use as an activator in froth flotation and sulfide ores, in the production of wood preservatives, in electroplating, and in the manufacturing of azo-dyes.

All the laws, terms, documents, and guidance on environmental impact assessment you need -- in one book!

Anyone who has ever had to wade through volumes of regulations and permit procedures. . .been besieged by confusing jargon and unknown acronyms. . .or otherwise wished there were a clear and reliable guide to the essentials of environmental impact assessment, will applaud this comprehensive and intelligently organized book.

Here, for the first time in one convenient volume, are all the key legislation, terminology, and documents you need to know, as well as invaluable guidance through an array of potential environmental impact study areas. Youll find important information on data sources, agency contacts, laws and permits, methodologies, presentation of results, and other practical issues that will give you the tools to tackle questions such as: Whom do I need to contact? Where do I find information? What should be assessed? Is a permit required? Who issues it? Is there a special processing requirement? Whats the best way to summarize my results for productive use?

This book provides numerous examples and a host of useful suggestions throughout, while skillfully interweaving the basic requirements with an understanding of the principles underlying environmental impact assessment. There is also an extensive index for direct access to any topic.

The practice of performing and managing regulatory air toxic risk assessments requires an exceptionally broadbase of understanding. The information and hands-on skills needed to evaluate the effects of air toxic emissions on human health derive from a broad range of disciplines: engineering, the physical and biological sciences, probability, statistics, and medicine. Dr. Lawrence Gratt's Air Toxic Risk Assessment and Management provides a comprehensive study of the subject of risk assessment, showing how the various disciplines are integrated to carry out this complex process. No other resource combines the basic science underlying risk assessment with the techniques needed to perform the analyses.

Evaluates the risks to human health and the environment posed by lindane, an isomer of hexachlorocyclohexane used, for more than four decades, as a broad-spectrum insecticide. Although most lindane is used in agriculture for the treatment of seeds and soils, other important applications include the protection of wood and timber, the treatment of veterinary ectoparasites, and the treatment of scabies and body lice in humans.

Evaluates the carcinogenic risk to humans posed by exposure to fourteen industrial chemicals, including several having considerable commercial importance as the building blocks of widely used polymers and copolymers. While some of these chemicals are evaluated for the first time, the majority have been re-evaluated in the light of substantial new data and more precise methodological guidelines for the interpretation of findings. In view of the widespread industrial use of these chemicals, particular emphasis is placed on the risk of cancer in occupationally exposed workers. Over 1,800 studies were critically assessed. The most extensive monographs cover ethylene oxide, styrene, and acrylamide. Ethylene oxide is an important raw material for making major consumer goods in virtually all industrialized countries. On the basis of evidence of small but consistent excesses of lymphatic and haematopoietic cancer found in both human and animal studies, the monograph concludes that ethylene oxide is carcinogenic to humans. For styrene, one of the most important monomers worldwide, the evaluation concentrated on evidence of a link between exposure and the risk for lymphatic and haematopoietic cancer, concluding that styrene is possibly carcinogenic to humans. Acrylamide was classified as probably carcinogenic to humans. Among the other chemicals evaluated, styrene-7,8-oxide was classified as probably carcinogenic to humans. Propylene oxide, isoprene, 4-vinylcyclohexene, and 4-vinylcyclo-hexene diepoxide were classified as possibly carcinogenic. The remaining chemicals, ethylene, propylene, vinyl toluene, N-methylol-acrylamide, methyl methacrylate, and 2-ethylhexyl acrylate, could not be classified. For two of these, methyl methacrylate and vinyl toluene, experimental evidence indicated a lack of carcinogenicity.

A dissection of the Soviet Union's legacy of health and environmental disaster, this book examines a former country of 103 cities - home to 70 million people - where the air is unfit to breathe and pollution fouls 75 percent of the water.

Evaluates the risks to human health and the environment posed by exposure to acrolein, a chemical produced in large quantities and used as an intermediate in the synthesis of several chemicals, most notably acrylic acid and its esters and DL-methionine, an essential amino acid used as a feed supplement for poultry and cattle. Acrolein also has direct application as an aquatic biocide used against algae, molluscs, and herbs in recirculating process water systems, irrigation channels, cooling water towers, and water treatment ponds. Acrolein accounts for about 3 to 10% of total automobile exhaust aldehydes, 1 to 13% of total wood-smoke aldehydes, and up to 7% of the aldehydes in cigarette smoke. The report notes that exposure of the general population occurs mainly via air, with mainstream and sidestream tobacco smoke representing the most important source. Other sources of exposure include inhalation of air polluted by vehicle exhausts, direct contact with acrolein-treated water, and consumption of alcoholic beverages and certain food items. Concerning effects on the environment, the report cites studies documenting adverse effects on crops grown on soil irrigated by acrolein-treated water, and a very high toxicity for bacteria, algae, crustacea, and fish, with bacteria being the most sensitive species. Acrolein is noted to threaten aquatic life at or near sites of industrial discharge or spills and in areas where acrolein is used as a biocide.

Evaluates the risks to human health and the environment posed by exposure to alpha- and beta-hexachlorocyclohexanes (HCH). These two isomers are by-products in the manufacturing of lindane, and may be present in this pesticide as impurities. Alpha- and beta-HCH are also present in technical-grade HCH, which is used in agriculture and wood protection. Most environmental releases are linked to the use of technical-grade HCH and to the inappropriate disposal of residues produced when lindane is purified.

Evaluates the risks to human health and the environment posed by the mining, refining, industrial use, and recycling of platinum and selected platinum compounds. Because of its exceptional catalytic properties, resistance to chemical corrosion, and high mechanical strength, platinum is widely used in the chemical and petroleum industries, most notably in the production of catalysts, including devices for reducing hazardous gas emissions. The growing use of catalytic converters to reduce pollution from automobile exhausts has caused a sharp increase in the world demand for this metal. Compounds such as cisplatin also have important therapeutic applications.

Evaluates the risks to human health and the environment posed by two partially halogenated chlorofluorocarbons: dichlorofluoromethane (HCFC 21) and chlorodifluoromethane (HCFC 22). These two methane derivatives were selected for evaluation because of their potential use as substitutes for those fully halogenated chlorofluorocarbons that are being phased out as a result of the 1987 Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer. The evaluation is intended to assist industry in its urgent search for acceptable substitute chemicals, most notably for use as refrigerants, as propellants in aerosols, and as blowing agents for the production of polystyrene. While data on human toxicity are thoroughly reviewed, the greatest challenge is to find the most accurate models for predicting levels of release to the environment and estimating the potential of these chemicals to deplete the ozone layer.

Evaluates the risks to human health and the environment posed by exposure to isobenzan. This cyclodiene insecticide was manufactured in the Netherlands from 1958 to 1965 and used from existing stocks for several years thereafter. Present sources of human and environmental exposure are restricted to the original waste-disposal sites and to polders which were built up using mud dredged from contaminated harbour areas. Although recent research on this insecticide has been limited, the report draws heavily on a number of proprietary toxicological studies made available by the manufacturer.

Evaluates occupational exposures to mists and vapours from strong inorganic acids: and other industrial chemicals.

Evaluates risks to human health and the environment posed by the use of beryllium, a brittle metal having major applications in the electronics and micro-electronics industries, in nuclear energy, and in the production of military devices, including satellites, missiles, atomic bombs, and other weapons. Beryllium has also proved its superiority as a structural material for aircraft and spacecraft.

Evaluates risks to human health and the environment posed by the production and use of tricresyl phosphate. Tricresyl phosphate is used in industry as a plasticizer in vinyl plastic manufacture, as a flame-retardant, as a solvent for nitrocellulose, in cellulosic molding compositions, and in the manufacture of fire-resistant hydraulic fluids and lubricants. Because of the physico-chemical properties of tricresyl phosphate and its rapid biodegradation, the report concludes that use of the compound does not threaten the environment, though there is some evidence that crop plants can be affected by tri-o-cresyl phosphate released from plastic coverings. A section devoted to kinetics and metabolism concentrates on mechanisms of absorption, distribution, metabolism, and elimination that can help explain the well-documented neuropathic actions of tricresyl phosphate and, most notably, its highly toxic isomer, tri-o-cresyl phosphate. The most extensive section assesses findings from toxicity studies, emphasizing the large number of studies documenting neurotoxic effects, often at very low doses. These effects are further characterized through a review of the numerous reported cases of large-scale human poisoning following the ingestion of accidentally or deliberately contaminated medicines and foodstuffs. Readers are given detailed information on the clinical symptoms of poisoning, the characteristics of delayed neuropathy, long-term prognosis, and advice on the first-aid treatment of victims. While the concluding section notes that use of tricresyl phosphate poses very little risk to either the environment or the general population, the report underscores the severity and long-duration of the neuropathology caused by accidental poisoning, noting that some victims never recover.