M. Rycroft, FacultyMember, InternationalSpaceUniversity e-mail:[email protected] "The Space Transportation Market: Evolution or Revolution?" was the question which was the focus for the papers presented, and also the Panel Discussions, at the fifth annual Symposium organised by the International Space University. Held in Strasbourg, France, for three lively days at the end of May 2000, the Symposium brought together representatives of the developers, providers and operators of space transportation systems, of regulatory bodies, and of users of the space transportation infrastructure in many fields, as well as experts in policy and market analysis. From the papers published here, it is clear that today's answer to the question tends more towards evolution than to revolution. The space launch industry is still not a fully mature one, and is still reliant on at least partial funding by governments. Better cooperation is essential between governments, launch providers, satellite builders and satellite operators in order to reduce the problems which the space transportation market faces today.

1.1 Cash Flow, Risk, Agency, Information, Investments The first volume dealt with the management of: cash flow (and the exchange of goods and services); risk; agency relationships; and information. The firm m- ages these aspects by legal tools and practices in the context of all commercial transactions. The second volume discussed investments. As voluntary contracts belong to the most important legal tools available to the firm, the second volume provided an - troduction to the general legal aspects of generic investment contracts and p- ment obligations. This volume discusses funding transactions, exit, and a particular category of decisions raising existential questions (business acquisitions). Transactions which can be regarded as funding transactions from the perspective of a firm raising the funding can be regarded as investment transactions from the perspective of an - vestor that provides the funding. Although the perspective chosen in this volume is that of a firm raising funding, this volume will simultaneously provide infor- tion about the legal aspects of many investment transactions. 1.2 Funding, Exit, Acquisitions Funding transactions are obviously an important way to manage cash flow. All - vestments will have to be funded in some way or another. The firm's funding mix will also influence risk in many ways. Funding. The most important way to raise funding is through retained profits and by using existing assets more efficiently. The firm can also borrow money from a bank, or issue debt, equity, or mezzanine securities to a small group of - vestors.

This is the first book to explore the concept of 'Grotian Moments'. Named for Hugo Grotius, whose masterpiece De jure belli ac pacis helped marshal in the modern system of international law, Grotian Moments are transformative developments that generate the unique conditions for accelerated formation of customary international law. In periods of fundamental change, whether by technological advances, the commission of new forms of crimes against humanity, or the development of new means of warfare or terrorism, customary international law may form much more rapidly and with less state practice than is normally the case to keep up with the pace of developments. The book examines the historic underpinnings of the Grotian Moment concept, provides a theoretical framework for testing its existence and application, and analyzes six case studies of potential Grotian Moments: Nuremberg, the continental shelf, space law, the Yugoslavia Tribunal's Tadic decision, the 1999 NATO intervention in Serbia and the 9/11 terrorist attacks.

PREMIERE PARTIE TEXTES FONDAMENTAUX ET INFORMA nONS DE CARACTERE GENERAL CHAPITRE I. TEXTES FONDAMENTAUX A. DECLARATIONS D'ACCEPTATION DE LA COMPETENCE DE LA COMMISSION EUROPEENNE DES DROITS DE L'HOMME EN MATIERE DE REQUETES INDIVI- DUELLES (Article 25 de la Convention) 3 Danemark 3 Norvege 3 Royaume-Uni 5 B. DECLARATIONS D'ACCEPTATION DE LA JURIDICTION OBLIGATOIRE DE LA COUR EUROPEENNE DES DROITS DE L'HOMME (Article 46 de la Convention) 7 Danemark 7 Norvege 9 Royaume-Uni 9 C. DECLARATIONS D'ACCEPTATION DE LA COMPETENCE DE LA COMMISSION EUROPEENNE DES DROITS DE L'HOMME EN MATIERE DE REQUETES INDIVI DUELLES ET DE LA JURIDICTION OBLIGATOIRE DE LA COUR EUROPEENNE DES DROITS DE L'HOMME VISEES A L'ARTICLE 6, PARAGRAPHE 2, DU PROTO COLE N" 4 A LA CONVENTION EUROPEENNE 13 Danemark 13 Norvege 15 D. DEROGATIONS (Article 15 de la Convention) 17 Turquie 17 ANNEXES - Etat des Ratifications, Declarations et Reserves au 31 decembre 1972 28 - Etat des Depots des Ratifications 31 CHAPITRE II. LA COMMISSION EUROPEENNE DES DROITS DE L'HOMME 33 A. COMPOSITION 35 B. NOTICES BIOGRAPHIQUES C. TRAVALJX DE LA COMMISSION 35 41 D. SECRETARIAT VJII TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER III. THE EUROPEAN COCRT OF HCMAN RIGHTS A COMPOSITION 44 B BIOGRAPHICAL NOTES 44 C SESSIONS AND HEARINGS 46 D REGISTRY OF THE COL'RT 48 CHAPTER IV. PRINCIPAL DEVELOPMENTS IN THE COUNCIL OF EUROPE CONCERNING THE PROTECTION OF HUMAN RIGHTS ~. CHRONOL.

International Documents on Environmental Liability brings together 30 official full-text documents in the field of international environmental liability into an easily accessible, practical handbook; details the work of the International Law Commission on this topic; and provides the latest versions of international liability conventions and their statuses including the latest on: (1) 2003 UNECE Kyiv Liability Protocol; (2) 2004 EC Directive on Environmental Liability; (3) 2005 Antartica Liability Annex.

The authors combined capacity as an academic, policy advisor, and practitioner have helped bring forth a publication that reflects their experience of being involved in the development, negotiations and implementation of environmental liability regimes at both an international and European level.

Volume I3 of the Yearbook of the European Convention on Human Rights relates to the year I970 and reflects a return to the usual pattern of activity under the Convention during that year, after the exceptional situation produced in I969 by the "Greek Case". This volume is published somewhat later than usual, because an extra volume in this series has been published between volumes I2 and I3 containing the Report of the European Com mission of Human Rights and the Resolution of the Committee of Ministers of the Council of Europe relating to the "Greek Case". Part I of this Volume contains, as usual, the basic texts, chief among which are the amendments now made to the Convention following the entry into force on 2I September I970 of the Third Protocol, which relates to the procedure of the Commission. On the same date, the Second Protocol also entered into force, conferring on the Court of Human Rights competence to give advisory opinions. The text of this Protocol is to be found in Volume 6 at pages 3ff. The amendments and additions to the Rules of Court consequent upon the entry into force of the Second Protocol are set out in Part I of this Volume.

PREMIERE PARTIE TEXTES FONDAMENTAUX ET INFORMATIONS DE CARACTERE GENERAL CHAPITRE I. TEXTES FONDAMENTAUX A. AMENDEMENTS AU REGLEMENT DE LA COUR EUROPEENNE DES DROITS DE L'HOMME 3 B. AMENDEMENTS AU REGLEMENT INTERIEUR DE LA COMMISSION EUROPEENNE DES DROITS DE L'HOMME 3 C. DECLARATIONS D'ACCEPTATION DE LA COMPETENCE DE LA COM MISSION EUROPEENNE DES DROITS DE L'HOMME EN MATIERE DE REQUETES INDIVIDUELLES (Article 25 de la Convention) Autriche 9 Belgique II Italle II D. DECLARATIONS D'ACCEPTATION DE LA JURIDICTION OBLIGATOIRE DE LA COUR EUROPEENNE DES DROITS DE L'HOMME (Article 46 de la Convention) Autriche 13 Belgique 13 Italie 15 E. DECLARATIONS D'ACCEPTATION DE LA COMPETENCE DE LA COM MISSION EUROPEENNE DES DROITS DE L'HOMME EN MATIERE DE REQUETES INDIVIDUELLES ET DE LA JURIDICTION OBLIGATOIRE DE LA COUR EUROPEENNE DES DROITS DE L'HOMME VISEES A L' AR TICLE 6, PARAGRAPHE 2 DU PROTOCOLE NO 4 A LA CONVENTION EUROPEENNE Autriche 15 F. DEROGATIONS (Article 15 de la Convention) Turquie 17 ANNEXES Etat des Ratifications, Declarations et Reserves au 31 dec- bre 1973 32 Etat des Depots des Ratifications au 31 decembre 1973 35 VIII TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER II. THE EUROPEAN COMMISSION OF HUMAN RIGHTS A. COMPOSITION B. BIOGRAPHICAL NOTES C. PROCEEDINGS D. SECRETARIAT CHAPTER III. THE EUROPEAN COURT OF HUMAN RIGHTS A. COMPOSITION 54 B. BIOGRAPHICAL NOTES 54 C. SESSIONS AND HEARINGS 58 D. REGISTRY OF THE COURT 58 CHAPTER IV. PRINCIPAL DEVELOPMENTS IN THE COUNCIL OF EUROPE CONCERNING THE PROTECTION OF HUMAN RIGHTS A."

This volume presents a high-level scholarly discussion on whether the concept of solidarity functions as a structural principle of international law and to what extent it has become a full-fledged legal principle. Each contributor addresses these questions by examining normative operations of the principle of solidarity in different branches of international law including international disaster law, international humanitarian law, the law of development cooperation and international environmental law as well as the relationship between the principle of solidarity and other legal principles such as the responsibility to protect and intergenerational equity.

Parent-Child Separation: Psychosocial Effects on Development is an abstracted bibliography dealing with the consequences of parental separation and deprivation on the developing child and adolescent. We were interested in investigating the literature pertaining to the absence of a parent for reasons other than parental death. Main topics included were maternal or paternal absence due to desertion, military duty, imprisonment, parental institutionalization and divorce. Restricted parenting articles were included when they dealt with maternal or paternal inattention, rather than physical abuse. Particular problems with being a single parent were viewed from the perspective of child development. Because of the wealth of literature available in this area it became necessary to exclude topics such as laboratory studies dealing with temporary separation, normative attachment studies, effects of maternal employment, child abuse, child institutionalization and the like. Other related topics will be the subject of forthcoming books. These include the effect of parental death on the child and problems of childhood hospitali zation. In Parent-Child Separation each of the 690 main references have abstracts which were derived from three main sources: Psycho logical Abstracts, author-supplied abstracts and those written by the authors of this book. In compiling this book it became neces sary, because of size limitations, to focus on articles published after 1960. However, several pre-1960 articles and books were im portant from a historical perspective and are included in a separate section marked "Historical References. " These represent important earlier contributions to this vast subject area."

PREMIERE PARTIE TEXTES FONDAMENTAUX ET INFORMATIONS DE CARACTERE GENERAL CHAPITRE 1. TEXTES FONDAMENTAUX A. ACCORD EUROPEEN CONCERNANT LES PERSONNES PARTICIPANT AUX PROCEDURES DEVANT LA COMMISSION ET LA COUR EUROPEEN- NES DES DROlTS DE L'HOMME 3 B. REGLES ADOPTEES PAR LE COMlTE DES MINISTRES EN VUE DE L'APPLICATION DE L'ARTICLE 32 DE LA CONVENTION EUROPEENNE DES DROlTS DE L'HOMME 13 C. AMENDEMENTS AU REGLEMENT DE LA COUR EUROPEENNE DES DROlTS DE L'HOMME 21 D. DECLARATIONS D'ACCEPTATION DE LA COMPETENCE DE LA COM MISSION EUROPEENNE DES DROlTS DE L'HOMME EN MATIERE DE REQUETES INDIVIDUELLES (Article 25 de la Convention) 23 Belgique 23 Pays-Bas 25 Royaume-Uni 25 E. DECLARATION D'ACCEPTATlON DE LA JURIDICTION OBLIGATOIRE DE LA COUR EUROPEENNE DES DROITS DE L'HOMME (Article 46 de la Convention) 31 Belgique 31 Islande 31 Pays-Bas 33 Royaume-Uni 33 F. DEROGATIONS (Article 15 de la Convention) 39 Grece 39 Royaume-Uni - Irlande du Nord 73 G. EXTENSION DE L'APPLICATION DE LA CONVENTION (Article 63 de la Convention) 75 Royaume-Uni (liste revisee des territoires auxquels s'applique la Convention) 75 H."

The fragmentation of international law is an undeniable phenomenon and one that has met with increasing academic interest. This fragmentation is the result of the progressive expansion of both international legal activity and the subject-matter of international law. This expansion brings with it the risk of conflicting rules, principles and institutions. Non-Proliferation Law as a Special Regime focuses on weapons of mass destruction and aims to identify whether there are specific rules applying to this field that depart from the general rules of international law and the rules of other special regimes, in particular with regard to the law of treaties and the law of state responsibility. In providing a systematic analysis of a substantive area of international law and applying the theory of fragmentation and special regimes, the book contributes to the ongoing debate concerning one of the most topical issues in international law.

The legal regime of outer space, as enshrined in the Declaration of Legal Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space (General Assembly Resolution 1962 (XVIII), adopted in 1963, and in the 1967 Treaty on Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space, including the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies, while prohibiting the appropriation of space by any means, envisages exploration for the bene't and in the interest of all countries on a basis of equality and in accordance with international law. Freedom of scienti?c investigation is also contemplated. Elaborating on these instruments, the Assembly in 1996 adopted the Declaration on International Cooperation in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space (RES 51/122), in which it called for heightened international co-operation, with part- ular attention to be given to the bene't for and the interests of developing countries and countries with nascent space programmes. Thus, it is self-evident that the outer space regime, including the 1972 Liability Convention, envisages the conduct of national activities "for the bene't and in the interests of all countries, irrespective of their degree of economic or scienti?c dev- opment." In this regard, Article 6 of the 1967 Treaty not only provides for national activities in outer space, but for international responsibility whether such activities are carried out by governmental agencies or non-governmental entities, and aims at ensuring that national activities are conducted in conformity with the Treaty.

This book traces the role of human rights concerns in US foreign policy during the 1980s, focusing on the struggle among the Reagan administration and members of Congress. It demonstrates how congressional pressure led the administration to reconsider its approach to human rights and craft a conservative human rights policy centered on democracy promotion and anti-communism - a decision which would have profound implications for American attention to human rights. Based on extensive archival research and interviews, Rasmus Sinding Sondergaard combines a comprehensive overview of human rights in American foreign relations with in-depth case studies of how human rights shaped US foreign policy toward Soviet Jewry, South African apartheid, and Nicaragua. Tracing the motivations behind human rights activism, this book demonstrates how liberals, moderates, and conservatives selectively invoked human rights to further their agendas, ultimately contributing to the establishment of human rights as a core moral language in US foreign policy.

The present volume presents a part of the results of a research project launched by the European Science Foundation (ESF) in 1977. Tribute should be paid to the late Professor Aleck Chloros, Judge in the Court of the European Community, whose belief in the European ideal and enthusiasm for European cooperation and the comparative study of legal problems made him an elo quent advocate of a large-scale ESF venture into the field of com parative law. Judge Chloros had envisaged the creation of a per manent, sizable and well-equipped European institute for compa rative legal studies. The successive working parties convoked by the Executive Council of the ESF, which I had the honour of chairing from the beginning, came to the conclusion that this am bitious vision could not be realized immediately; the financial sit uation of the member organizations of the ESF also deteriorated, making a cautious approach a necessary virtue. The solution ulti mately adopted by the last of the working parties - the Ad Hoc Committee for Comparative Law -and submitted to the General Assembly of the ESF in 1979 called for the launching of four pi lot projects. In November 1980, the Assembly approved detailed plans for two of these projects. The first of these - dealing with medical responsibility - has already been presented in an impres sive volume (E. Deutsch and H. -L. Schreiber, editors, Medical Responsibility in Western Europe.

This title presents a uniquely human perspective on the quest to explore space and to understand the universe through the lens of the arts, humanities, and social sciences. It considers early stories about the universe in various cultures; recent space fiction; the origins and cultural rationale for the space age; experiences of humans in space and their emerging interactions with robots and artificial intelligence; how humans should treat environments and alien life; and the alternative futures of space exploration and settlement.

International lawyers typically start with the legal. What is a legal as opposed to a political question? How should international law adapt to the unforeseen? These are the routes by which international lawyers typically reason. This book begins, instead, with the non-legal. In a series of case studies, Fleur Johns examines what international lawyers cast outside or against law - as extra-legal, illegal, pre-legal or otherwise non-legal - and how this comes to shape political possibility. Non-legality is not merely the remainder of regulatory action. It is a key structuring device of contemporary global order. Constructions of non-legality are pivotal to debate in areas ranging from torture to foreign investment and from climate change to natural disaster relief. Understandings of non-legality inform what international lawyers today do and what they refrain from doing. Tracing and potentially reimagining the non-legal in international legal work is, accordingly, both vital and pressing.

Law can no longer be viewed through a purely national lens. Transnational legal ordering affects the boundary of the state and the market, the allocation of power among national institutions, the role of professions and their expertise, and associational patterns that provide new normative frames. This book breaks new ground for understanding the impacts of transnational legal ordering within nation-states in today's globalized world. The book addresses the different dimensions of state change at stake and the factors that determine these impacts. It brings together leading scholars from sociology and law who study the effects of transnational legal ordering within different countries. Their case studies illustrate how transnational legal ordering interacts with national law and institutions in different regulatory areas, and cover anti-money laundering, bankruptcy, competition, education, intellectual property, health, and municipal water law and policy in different countries. The book explains the extent and limits of transnational legal ordering in today's world.

TO ACCOMPANY A MAJOR ITV DOCUMENTARY We are poisoning our planet and destroying the lives of our children. In the west arguments rage over how much nuclear radiation and toxic dumping is safe, while children continue to breath filthy air and eat food full of pesticides. In the third World, over four million children die each year from drinking unclean water. Adults make the decisions but children pay the highest price. They are physically vulnerable and politically powerless. When the Bough Breaks... is about the world we are creating for our children. For too long we have used what we want from our planet now, refusing to think about the future. But it may still not be too late. The book sets out what must be done and describes how people throughout the world are uniting to clean up the mess we have made.

Counter-terrorism is now a permanent and sprawling part of the legislative and operational apparatus of the state, yet little is known about the law and practice of how it is reviewed, how effective the review mechanisms are, what impact they have or how they interact with one another. This book addresses that gap in knowledge by presenting the first comprehensive, critical analysis of counter-terrorism review in the United Kingdom, informed by exclusive interviews with policy makers, politicians, practitioners and civil society.

In The Rule of Law and Governance in Indigenous Yoruba Society, John Ayotunde Isola Bewaji has two main goals. The first is to provide an exploration of aspects of indigenous Yoruba philosophy of law. The second is to relate this philosophy of law to the Yoruba indigenous traditions of governance, with a view to appreciating the relevance of the Yoruba traditions of law and governance to contemporary African experiments with imported Western democracy in the 21st century. This book is devoted to what can be described as a juridical forensic investigation of Nigeria's predicament of developmental deficit, leading to gross and unconscionable impoverishment of large segments of the population, in the midst of so much natural resources and abundant human capital, using Yoruba indigenous legal traditions as reflective template. Bewaji urges that Africa has to take seriously the necessity of obedience, observance, enforcement and operation of law as no respecter of persons, groups, affiliations and pedigrees as was in the case in the societies founded by our ancestors, rather than the present scenario whereby the highest bidder procures semblances of justice from a crooked system of common law which was never designed to be fair, equitable and just to the disadvantaged in society.

The strengths of international investment law - above all, a strong focus on investor interests and an effective adjudication and enforcement system - also entail its weaknesses: it runs the danger of impeding or even sanctioning the host states' legitimate regulatory interests and ignoring other fields of public international law. How does it cope with public interest concerns such as human rights, the environment or the fight against corruption? At the heart of this book lies a fresh approach towards a general theory of such global public interest considerations in the investment realm. Delineating how and why those considerations matter, and why the current system does not accommodate them properly, Andreas Kulick fleshes out general principles and customary international law as defences the host state may raise against alleged investor rights infringements and promotes proportionality as the appropriate balancing mechanism.

lt is a commonplace that law and morality intersect and interpenetrate in all the areas of legal decision-making; that in order to make sense of constitutional, statutory or common-law questions, judges and other legal decision-makers must first resolve certain philosophical issues which include moral judgments of right and wrang_ This is particularly evident with regard to constitutional interpretation, especially when constitutions give a mandate for the protection of the substantive norms and values entrenched as constitutional rights. In these Situations, as a leading contemporary legal philosopher observed, the "Constitution fuses legal and moral issues, by making the validity of a law depend on an answer to complex moral 1 problems." But the need for substantive value elucidation is not confined, of course, only to constitutional interpretation under Bills of Rights. This, however, immediately raises a dilemma stemming from the moral diversity and pluralism of modern liberal societies. How can law remain sensitive to this pluralism and yet provide clear answers to the problems which call for a legal resolution? Sharply conflicting values in modern societies clash in the debates over the death penalty, abortion, homosexuality, separation of state and religion, the scope of the freedom of the press, or affirmative action. lt would often be difficult to discern a broader consensus within which these clashes of values operate, unless this consensus were described in such vague terms as to render it practically meaningless.

However, it became apparent shortly after the establishing of the Center that not only were all methods of legal semiotics not Peircean in origin, but were in their respective foundational assumptions not likely to be compatible with Peirce's semiotics without some radical, transforming development of the idea, 'legal semiotics'. It was clear that if one would intend to be faithful to Peircean semiotics then holding a fixed notion of what an idea of Peircean semiotics of law means would be a violation of the spirit of Peirce's thought; this above all emphasizes the growth and development of initiative ideas and also the stricture that all leading principles must be subject to revision. Even the idea of Peircean semiotics, as leading principle, must itself be an open idea, the meaning of which must be transformable through the process of defining it. A metasemiotics view of a semiotics of law must leave open the possibility for revision of the leading principle of the term, "legal semiotics. " Therefore, if legal semiotics is an idea which accumulates and evolves its meaning in the very process of self-examination, then a process of investigating law investigates itself as well in any semiotic process of inquiry. It became apparent that the most appropriate contribution the Center could make to the area of a Peirce an semiotics would be to act as a sponsor, an inclusive rather than exclusive agent for inquiry of all kinds into the general topic of law and semiotics.

PREMIERE PARTIE TEXTES FONDAMENTAUX ET INFORMATIONS DE CARACTERE GENERAL CHAPITRE 1. TEXTES FONDAMENTAUX A. AMENDEMENTS A LA CONVENTION EUROPEENNE DES DROITS DE L'HOMME 3 B. AMENDEMENTS AU REGLEMENT DE LA COUR EUROPEENNE DES DROITS DE L'HOMME 7 C. AMENDEMENT AU REGLEMENT INTERIEUR DE LA COMMISSION EUROPEENNE DES DROITS DE L'HOMME 15 D. DECLARATION D'ACCEPTATION DE LA COMPETENCE DE LA COM MISSION EUROPEENNE DES DROITS DE L'HOMME EN MATIERE DE REQUETES INDIVIDUELLES (Article 25 de la Convention) 17 Belgique 17 Republique Federale d'Allemagne 19 Luxembourg 19 E. DECLARATION D'ACCEPTATION DE LA JURIDICTION OBLIGATO IRE DE LA COUR EUROPEENNE DES DROITS DE L'HOMME (Article 46 de la Convention) 21 Belgique 21 Republique Federale d'Allemagne 21 Luxembourg 23 Suede 25 F. DEROGATIONS (Article 15 de la Convention) 25 Turquie 25 Royaume-Uni 33 ANNEXES Etat des Ratifications, Declarations et Reserves au 31 dec- bre 1971 38 Etat des Depots des Ratifications au 31 decembre 1971 41 CHAPITRE II. LA COMMISSION EUROPEENNE DES DROITS DE L'HOMME A. COMPOSITION 43 VIII TABLE OF CONTENTS B. BIOGRAPHICAL NOTES C. WORK OF THE COMMISSION D. SECRETARIAT CHAPTER III. THE EUROPEAN COURT OF HUMAN RIGHTS A. COMPOSITION 50 B. BIOGRAPHICAL NOTES 52 C. SESSIONS AND HEARINGS 58 D. REGISTRY OF THE COURT 60 CHAPTER IV. PRINCIPAL DEVELOPMENTS IN THE COUNCIL OF EUROPE CONCERNING THE PROTECTION OF HUMAN RIGHTS A. CHRONOLOGICAL LIST OF EVENTS 62 B. WORK OF THE COUNCIL OF EUROPE IN THE FIELD OF HUMAN RIGHTS 66 I. Consultative Assembly 68 2."

Despite its significant influence on international law, international relations, natural law and political thought in general, Grotius's Law of War and Peace has been virtually unavailable for many decades. Stephen Neff's edited and annotated version of the text rectifies this situation. Containing the substantive portion of the classic text, but shorn of extraneous material, this edited and annotated edition of one of the classic works of Western legal and political thought is intended for students and teachers in four primary areas: history of international law, history of political thought, history of international relations and history of philosophy.