The field of the excitatory amino acids was born when L-glutamate and L-aspartate were found to be potent convulsants (Hayashi, 1954), and were subsequently found to excite neurons directly (Curtis, Phillis, and Watkins, 1959). Although these studies initiated the hypothesis of glutamate-mediated neurotransmission, it was noted that the ubiquitous actions of glutamate could also reflect a general, nonspecific property of glutamate on neuronal mem branes. It was not until 20 years later that pharmacological, physiological, and biochemical studies provided convincing evidence for a neurotransmitter role for glutamate in the mammalian central nervous system (CNS). With the critical demonstration that the pharmacologically defined glutamate receptors mediate synaptic currents, glutamate rapidly became widely accepted as a majorneurotransmitter by the mid-1980s. This breakthrough, together with the simultaneous findings that glutamate receptors are involved in many essential, as well as pathological, processes in the CNS, instantly transformed the study of glutamate receptors into one of the fastest-growing and most exciting areas of neuroscience. With the cloning of numerous ionotropic glutamate receptor subunits over the last six years, the field has experienced another dramatic acceleration in the understanding of receptor action and in providing the first clear insights into the molecular bases underlying the wealth of pharmacological and physiological data on these receptors."

Early Thoughts on RNA and the Origin of Life The full impact of the essential role of the nucleic acids in biological systems was forcefully demonstrated by the research community in the 1950s. Although Avery and his collaborators had identified DNA as the genetic material responsible for the transformation of bacteria in 1944, it was not until the early 1950s that the Hershey-Chase experiments provided a more direct demonstration of this role. Finally, the structural DNA double helix proposed by Watson and Crick in 1953 clearly created a structural frame work for the role of DNA as both information carrier and as a molecule that could undergo the necessary replication needed for daughter cells. Research continued by Kornberg and his colleagues in the mid-1950s emphasized the biochemistry and enzymology of DNA replication. At the same time, there was a growing interest in the role of RNA. The 1956 dis covery by David Davies and myself showed that polyadenylic acid and polyuridylic acid could form a double-helical RNA molecule but that it differed somewhat from DN A A large number of experiments were subsequendy carried out with synthetic polyribonucleotides which illustrated that RNA could form even more complicated helical structures in which the specificity of hydrogen bonding was the key element in determining the molecular conformation. Finally, in I960,1 could show that it was possible to make a hybrid helix."

In Epiblast Stem Cells: Methods and Protocols, expect researchers in the field provide a detailed collection of techniques and protocols useful to the study of the biology of the pluripotent epiblast. These include methods and techniques used to study epiblast development in different amniotes. This collection brings together contributions from the fields of embryology, stem cell biology and developmental biology together, providing a single volume with detailed procedures for the isolation and culture of epiblasts at different stages of development, and techniques for the study of differentiation into specific lineages. Written in the highly successful Methods in Molecular Biology series format, chapters include introductions to their respective topics, a complete list of the necessary materials and reagents, detailed laboratory protocols, and extensive notes providing suggestions on troubleshooting and how to overcome common difficulties. Comprehensive and cutting-edge, Epiblast Stem Cells: Methods and Protocols serves as a resource to individuals interested in studying the biology of pluripotent cells.

Cytogenomics demonstrates that chromosomes are crucial in understanding the human genome and that new high-throughput approaches are central to advancing cytogenetics in the 21st century. After an introduction to (molecular) cytogenetics, being the basic of all cytogenomic research, this book highlights the strengths and newfound advantages of cytogenomic research methods and technologies, enabling researchers to jump-start their own projects and more effectively gather and interpret chromosomal data. Methods discussed include banding and molecular cytogenetics, molecular combing, molecular karyotyping, next-generation sequencing, epigenetic study approaches, optical mapping/karyomapping, and CRISPR-cas9 applications for cytogenomics. The book's second half demonstrates recent applications of cytogenomic techniques, such as characterizing 3D chromosome structure across different tissue types and insights into multilayer organization of chromosomes, role of repetitive elements and noncoding RNAs in human genome, studies in topologically associated domains, interchromosomal interactions, and chromoanagenesis. This book is an important reference source for researchers, students, basic and translational scientists, and clinicians in the areas of human genetics, genomics, reproductive medicine, gynecology, obstetrics, internal medicine, oncology, bioinformatics, medical genetics, and prenatal testing, as well as genetic counselors, clinical laboratory geneticists, bioethicists, and fertility specialists.

The notion of matching diet with an individual's genetic makeup is transforming the way the public views nutrition as a means of managing health and preventing disease. To fulfill the promise of nutritional genomics, researchers are beginning to reconcile the diverse properties of dietary factors with our current knowledge of genome structure and gene function. What is emerging is a complex system of interactions that make the human genome exquisitely sensitive to our nutritional environment. Nutritional Genomics: The Impact of Dietary Regulation of Gene Function on Human Disease provides an integrated view of how genomic and epigenetic processes modulate the impact of dietary factors on health. Written as a resource for researchers, nutrition educators, and policy makers, this book contains the latest scientific findings on the mechanisms of action underlying diet-genome interactions. It presents a unique perspective on the fundamentals of nutritional genomics from genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics, and metabolomics. Contributing authors introduce the important areas of cell signaling and transduction, the intricate regulation of gene expression, and alteration of gene-linked chronic diseases, such as obesity-induced inflammation, insulin resistance, metabolic syndrome, cardiovascular disease, and cancer. The authors detail significant areas of interest within nutritional genomics-including plant-based foods as epigenetic modifiers of gene function and the effects of bioactive phytochemicals on inherited genotype and expressed phenotypes. They also discuss the role of vitamin D in various cancer risks and the gastrointestinal tract as a defense system. Given the key role played by agriculture and the food industry to produce foods to meet personalized health needs, the book also addresses agricultural breeding efforts to enhance nutritional value and the use of technology to increase bioactive ingredients in the food supply. The final chapters discuss manufacturing practices and novel processing techniques for retention of nutrients and bioactive components, as well as the need for regulatory oversight and proper labeling to establish assurance of safety and benefit. An excellent resource for this exciting field, the book identifies future directions for research and opportunities for improving global health and wellness by preventing, delaying, or mitigating chronic diseases with diet.

DNA ancestry companies generate revenues in the region of $1bn a year, and the company 23andMe is said to have sold 10 million DNA ancestry kits to date. Although evidently popular, the science behind how DNA ancestry tests work is mystifying and difficult for the general public to interpret and understand. In this accessible and engaging book, Sheldon Krimsky, a leading researcher, investigates the methods that different companies use for DNA ancestry testing. He also discusses what the tests are used for, from their application in criminal investigations to discovering missing relatives. With a lack of transparency from companies in sharing their data, absent validation of methods by independent scientists, and currently no agreed-upon standards of accuracy, this book also examines the ethical issues behind genetic genealogy testing, including concerns surrounding data privacy and security. It demystifies the art and science of DNA ancestry testing for the general reader.

Chaetomium genus was established by Gustav Kunze in 1817. According to Index Fungorum Partnership, there are 273 Chaetomium species accepted till now. Members of the genus Chaetomium are capable of colonizing various substrates and are well-known for their ability to degrade cellulose and to produce a variety of bioactive metabolites. More than 200 compounds have been reported from this genus. A huge number of new and bioactive secondary metabolites associated with unique and diverse structural types, such as chaetoglobosins, epipolythiodioxopiperazines, azaphilones, depsidones, xanthones, anthraquinones, chromones, and steroids, have been isolated and identified. Many of the compounds have been reported to possess significant biological activities, such as antitumor, antimalarial, cytotoxic, enzyme inhibitory, antimicrobial, phytotoxic, antirheumatoid and other activities. Chaetomium taxa are frequently reported to be cellulase and ligninase producers with the ability to degrade cellulosic and woody materials. This is the first, comprehensive volume covering Chaetomium genus in detail. It includes the latest research, methods, and applications, and was written by scholars working directly in the field. The book also contains informative illustrations and is fully referenced for further reading.

Das Buch ist ein Leitfaden fA1/4r die tAgliche Arbeit in GynAkologie, Geburtshilfe, Neonatologie und bei der genetischen Beratung.
Das Autorenteam geht auf alle sich im Rahmen der nichtinvasiven und invasiven PrAnataldiagnostik stellenden Fragen ein. Besondere BerA1/4cksichtigung findet die sonographische Fehlbildungsdiagnostik.
DarA1/4ber hinaus vermittelt der vorliegende Band fundiert und umfassend, aber dennoch A1/4bersichtlich den neuesten wissenschaftlichen Stand des fachA1/4bergreifenden Gebietes der Humangenetik. In dieser Funktion ist es fA1/4r alle in Klinik und Praxis mit der Diagnostik genetisch bedingter Erkrankungen und der genetischen Familienberatung BeschAftigten ein wertvolles kurzgefaAtes Nachlesewerk.

Genetically Engineered Marine Organisms: Environmental and Economic Risks and Benefits provides a comprehensive, multidisciplinary overview of the environmental, economic, and regulatory implications of advances in marine biotechnology. The book has been specifically designed to bridge the gap between the rapidly advancing marine biotechnology industry and the government agencies that are responsible for risk assessment and regulation. Editors Raymond Zilinskas and Peter Balint have brought together experts in risk assessment, marine ecology, biotechnology, economics, and the law, to provide a unique way of examining complex issues in marine biotechnology. The contributors present innovative and challenging recommendations for protecting public health and the environment, while encouraging the development of beneficial new products in the field of marine biotechnology. As an added feature, each chapter includes a comprehensive, up-to-date bibliography. Genetically Engineered Marine Organisms: Environmental and Economic Risks and Benefits will prove invaluable to students, researchers and public employees involved with risk assessment. The book will appeal to industry personnel involved with the preparation of marine biotechnology products; scientists and administrators involved with applied research in marine biotechnology; policy analysts concerned with the economics of marine fisheries; and university personnel who focus on the interaction of risk, technology, and public policy.

This thesis outlines the development of the very first technology for high-throughput analysis of paired heavy and light-chain antibody sequences, opening an entirely new window for antibody discovery and the investigation of adaptive immune responses to vaccines and diseases. Previous methods for high-throughput immune repertoire sequencing have been unable to provide information on the identity of immune receptor pairs encoded by individual B or T lymphocytes. The author directly addresses these limitations by designing two new technologies for sequencing multiple mRNA transcripts from up to 10 million isolated, single cells. The techniques developed in this work have enabled comprehensive interrogation of human B-cell repertoires and have been applied for rapid discovery of new human antibodies, to gain new insights into the development of human antibody repertoires, and for analysis of human immune responses to vaccination and disease.

Two of the more fascinating biological phenomena that have been d- covered in recent years are RNA editing and RNA interference. Each of these processes has been found in a cross-section of biological systems, including mammals, viruses, plants, and a range of model organisms (C. elegans,Dro- phila, and various lower eukaryotes). RNA editing, which results in an RNA product different from that predicted by the genome, occurs through a variety of mechanisms. Alterations can occur at either the base level, in which one base is changed to another (substitutional editing/base modification), or via the addition and/or deletion of nucleotides relative to the original template (insertion/deletion editing). RNA interference (RNAi) involves the specific degradation of targeted mRNAs. Although RNA interference, editing, and modification use different enzymes and mechanisms, the targets of each of these reactions are often specified by RNA molecules. Indeed, the discovery of guide RNAs (gRNAs) that direct nucleotide insertion and deletion in trypa- some mitochondria set the precedent for subsequent discoveries of the small nuclear RNAs (snoRNAs) that target pseudouridylylation and methylation of stable RNAs and the small double-stranded RNA fragments (siRNAs) that mediate RNAi. Other small RNAs are known to mediate translational regu- tion during development (small temporal RNAs [stRNAs]) and mRNA stab- ity (microRNAs [miRNAs]), and the recent identification of more than a hundred small "noncoding" RNAs has led to the realization that they may represent only the proverbial "tip of the iceberg.

This book presents up-to-date information on foxtail millet genomics, with a particular focus on its agronomic importance, genome architecture, marker development, evolutionary and diversity studies, comparative genomics and stress biology. The topics discussed have the potential to open up a new era of crop improvement in foxtail millet and other related grass species. Foxtail millet (Setaria italica L.) is the oldest domesticated crop in the world (domesticated >8700 years ago) and it has been extensively grown in the semi-arid regions of Asia, Europe and the Americas as a food and fodder crop ever since. Further, as a C4 crop with close genetic relatedness to several biofuel grasses, foxtail millet has been promoted as a model plant. In view of its importance, the US Department of Energy Joint Genome Institute and Beijing Genomics Institute have independently sequenced the genome of foxtail millet. The availability of the draft genome sequence has advanced the genomics and genetics of this important crop, resulting in the development of large-scale genome-wide molecular markers and demonstration of their utility in genomics-assisted breeding, as well as the identification of the molecular and biological roles of several stress-responsive gene families in connection with abiotic stress tolerance. In addition, several open access databases have been developed to make these resources for crop improvement through structural and functional genomics widely available.

As imaging technologies and approaches have evolved, the scope of certain imaging techniques has moved far beyond the production of purely illustrative images or appealing time-lapse movies to providing the scientist with a rich range of ways to measure and quantify the biological process and outcome of gene expression. In Imaging Gene Expression: Methods and Protocols, expert authors offer up-to-date approaches and protocols that scientists in the field have developed, which would benefit the broader scientific community. Divided in three convenient parts, this detailed book covers the output of a gene, namely the RNA molecules that are transcribed from the gene and the way by which these molecules can be tracked or quantified in fixed or living cells, protocols that focus on the gene, DNA, or chromatin, as well as a variety of ways by which nuclear processes intertwined with gene expression can be followed and quantified in living cells as well as approaches for studying several sub-nuclear structures found in eukaryotic cells. Written in the highly successful Methods in Molecular Biology series format, chapters include introductions to their respective subjects, lists of materials and reagents, step-by-step, readily reproducible laboratory protocols, and tips on troubleshooting and avoiding known pitfalls. Authoritative and up-to-date, Imaging Gene Expression: Methods and Protocols will serve researchers working toward imaging in the context of complete organisms.

This book is about Saffron (Crocus sativus L.) that is the most expensive spice in the world. Though there are other books on saffron but none of them has comprehensive information on saffron genome, transcriptome, proteome, metabolome and microbiome. The book has been divided into five sections and 17 chapters that cover all the areas related to its cultivation, market & economy, genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics, metabolomics, tissue culture, microbiomics, metagenomics etc. In addition a chapter on molecular markers and their use in molecular genetic mapping in saffron that lacks genetic diversity as a sterile plant paves a way for selection of elite varieties based on the epigenetic variability. A section on in-vitro propagation elaborates on the corm production under controlled conditions. In summary this book encompasses most of the information available on this golden spice

This updated volume reflects new and evolved techniques to study detection, profiling, and manipulation of microRNAs (miRNAs) in plants and animals. After overviews of how best to detect, identify, and validate microRNAs, the book continues by exploring state-of-the-art protocols for microRNA detection, approaches to profile the expression level of microRNAs, spatial expression analysis, describe in silico analysis of microRNAs and their targets, as well as protocols for functional analysis of microRNAs and their targets by CRISPR/Cas. Written for the highly successful Methods in Molecular Biology series, chapters include introductions to their respective topics, lists of the necessary materials and reagents, step-by-step and readily reproducible laboratory protocols, and tips on troubleshooting and avoiding known pitfalls. Authoritative and up-to-date, MicroRNA Detection and Target Identification: Methods and Protocols, Second Edition aims to ensure successful results in the further study of this vital field.

Tropical climates, which occur between 23 Degrees30'N and S latitude (Jacob 1988), encompass a wide variety of plant communities (Hartshorn 1983, 1988), many of which are diverse in their woody floras. Within this geographic region, temperature and the amount and seasonality of rainfall define habitat types (UNESCO 1978). The F AO has estimated that there 1 are about 19 million km of potentially forested area in the global tropics, of which 58% were estimated to still be in closed forest in the mid-1970s (Sommers 1976; UNESCO 1978). Of this potentially forested region, 42% is categorized as dry forest lifezone, 33% is tropical moist forest, and 25% is wet or rain forest (Lugo 1988). The species diversity of these tropical habitats is very high. Raven (1976, in Mooney 1988) estimated that 65% of the 250,000 or more plant species of the earth are found in tropical regions. Of this floristic assemblage, a large fraction are woody species. In the well-collected tropical moist forest of Barro Colorado Island, Panama, 39. 7% (481 of 1212 species) of the native phanerogams are woody, arborescent species (Croat 1978). Another 21. 9% are woody vines and lianas. Southeast Asian Dipterocarp forests may contain 120-200 species of trees per hectare (Whitmore 1984), and recent surveys in upper Amazonia re corded from 89 to 283 woody species ~ 10 cm dbh per hectare (Gentry 1988). Tropical communities thus represent a global woody flora of significant scope.

Our current knowledge of marine organisms and the factors affecting their ecology, distribution and evolution has been revolutionised by the use, in the last 20 years, of molecular population genetics tools. This book is the result of a meeting of world-leading experts, in Rio de Janeiro, where the state of the art of this field was reviewed. Topics covered include the molecular analysis of bio-invasions, the recent developments in marine biotechnology, the factors affecting levels of genetic variation and population structure in marine organisms and their application to conservation biology, fisheries and aquaculture. This is the first book dedicated to the genetic study of marine organisms. It will be very useful to biology students, scientists and anyone working or simply interested in areas such as marine biology, zoology, ecology, and population and molecular genetics.

Since the first edition of this book dedicated to differential display (DD) technology was published in 1997, we have witnessed an explosive interest in studying differential gene expression. The gene-hunting euphoria was initially powered by the invention of DD, which was gradually overtaken by DNA microarray technology in recent years. Then why is there still the need for second edition of this DD book? First of all, DD still enjoys a substantial lead over DNA microarrays in the ISI citation data (see Table 1), despite the h- dreds of millions of dollars spent each year on arrays. This may come as a surprise to many, but to us it implies that many of the DNA microarray studies went unpublished owing to their unfulfilled promises (1). Second, unlike DNA microarrays, DD is an "open"-ended gene discovery method that does not depend on prior genome sequence information of the organism being studied. As such, DD is applicable to the study of all living organisms-from bacteria, fungi, insects, fish, plants, to mammals-even when their genomes are not sequenced. Second, DD is more accessible technically and financially to most cost-conscious "cottage-industry" academic laboratories. So clearly DD still has its unique place in the modern molecular biological toolbox for gene expression analysis.

Homologous recombination is important in various aspects of DNA metabolism, including damage repair, replication, telomere maintenance, and meiosis, and yeast genetics has successfully provided a framework for the mechanism of homologous recombination. Divided into four convenient sections, DNA Recombination: Methods and Protocols covers recent techniques that best utilize the advantages of the yeast system, prescribing to the belief that yeast will keep serving as a great model organism to study homologous recombination. Chapters have also been included for such exceptions as the group of genes involved in recombination that are found solely in higher eukaryotes, such as BRCA2. And looking forward, a necessary step in the direction of understanding the homologous recombination process is to isolate the machine and let it work in a test tube. Understanding the design by studying the appearance and behavior of the machinery as a single molecule will be an important milestone toward understanding the mechanism of action of the machinery. Techniques covering these topics have also been included. Written in the successful Methods in Molecular Biology (TM) series format, chapters include introductions to their respective topics, lists of the necessary materials and reagents, step-by-step, readily reproducible protocols, and notes on troubleshooting and avoiding known pitfalls. Authoritative and easily accessible, DNA Recombination: Methods and Protocols serves as an ideal guide to scientists of all backgrounds with its well-honed methodologies and strives to bring the reader to the next level of understanding regarding this vital subject.

In most breeding programs of plant and animal species, genetic data (such as data from field progeny tests) are used to rank parents and help choose candidates for selection. In general, all selection processes first rank the candidates using some function of the observed data and then choose as the selected portion those candidates with the largest (or smallest) values of that function. To make maximum progress from selection, it is necessary to use a function of the data that results in the candidates being ranked as closely as possible to the true (but always unknown) ranking. Very often the observed data on various candidates are messy and unbalanced and this complicates the process of developing precise and accurate rankings. For example, for any given candidate, there may be data on that candidate and its siblings growing in several field tests of different ages. Also, there may be performance data on siblings, ancestors or other relatives from greenhouse, laboratory or other field tests. In addition, data on different candidates may differ drastically in terms of quality and quantity available and may come from varied relatives. Genetic improvement programs which make most effective use of these varied, messy, unbalanced and ancestral data will maximize progress from all stages of selection. In this regard, there are two analytical techniques, best linear prediction (BLP) and best linear unbiased prediction (BLUP), which are quite well-suited to predicting genetic values from a wide variety of sources, ages, qualities and quantities of data.

This book assembles chapters from experts in the Biophysics of RNA to provide a broadly accessible snapshot of the current status of this rapidly expanding field. The 2006 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine was awarded to the discoverers of RNA interference, highlighting just one example of a large number of non-protein coding RNAs. Because non-protein coding RNAs outnumber protein coding genes in mammals and other higher eukaryotes, it is now thought that the complexity of organisms is correlated with the fraction of their genome that encodes non-protein coding RNAs. Essential biological processes as diverse as cell differentiation, suppression of infecting viruses and parasitic transposons, higher-level organization of eukaryotic chromosomes, and gene expression itself are found to largely be directed by non-protein coding RNAs. The biophysical study of these RNAs employs X-ray crystallography, NMR, ensemble and single molecule fluorescence spectroscopy, optical tweezers, cryo-electron microscopy, and other quantitative tools. This emerging field has begun to unravel the molecular underpinnings of how RNAs fulfill their multitude of roles in sustaining cellular life. The physical and chemical understanding of RNA biology that results from biophysical studies is critical to our ability to harness RNAs for use in biotechnology and human therapy, a prospect that has recently spawned a multi-billion dollar industry.

Few, if any, genes have had the same level of impact on the field of evolutionary-developmental biology (evo-devo) as the Hox genes. These genes are renowned for their roles in patterning the body plans and development of the animal kingdom. This is complemented by the distinctive organisation of these genes in the genome, with them frequently being found as clusters in which gene position is linked to when and where the individual genes are expressed, particularly during embryogenesis. This book provides the latest overviews of Hox gene organisation and function for major clades of animals from across the animal kingdom. With the rapidly increasing availability of high-quality whole genome sequences from an ever-expanding range of species, it is becoming increasingly evident that there is great diversity in the organisation of Hox genes. These great strides in genome sequencing are wedded to important developments in our ability to detect expression and disrupt gene function in species that are not traditionally genetically-amenable animals. These technical developments are integrated with wide taxon-sampling in this volume to provide new perspectives on the roles of Hox genes in understanding fundamental issues such as embryo patterning, mechanisms of gene regulation, homology, evolvability, evolutionary novelties, phylogeny, the role of gene and genome duplications in evolution, and ancestral states for major clades of animals. Key features Integrative overviews from major animal groups including, arthropods, vertebrates, echinoderms, mollusks and other spiralians. Perspectives gleaned from the latest genome sequence and gene expression data. Individual chapters written by world-leading experts in Hox genes and evo-devo in each animal group. Related Titles Scholtz, G., ed. Evolutionary Developmental Biology of Crustacea (ISBN 978-9-0580-9637-1) Mattick, J. & P. Amaral. RNA, The Epicenter of Genetic Information (ISBN 978-0-3675-6778-1) Bard, J. Evolution: The Origins and Mechanisms of Diversity (ISBN 978-0-3673-5701-6)

While there has been an increasing number of books on various aspects of epigenetics, there has been a gap over the years in books that provide a comprehensive understanding of the fundamentals of chromatin. Chromatin is the combination of DNA and proteins that make up the genetic material of chromosomes. Its primary function is to package DNA to fit into the cell, to strengthen the DNA to prevent damage, to allow mitosis and meiosis, and to control the expression of genes and DNA replication. The audience for this book is mainly newly established scientists and graduate students. Rather than going into the more specific areas of recent research on chromatin the chapters in this book give a strong, updated groundwork about the topic. Some the fundamentals that this book will cover include the structure of chromatin and biochemistry and the enzyme complexes that manage it.

With the advent of high-throughput technologies following completion of the human genome project and similar projects in model organisms, the number of genes of interest has expanded and the traditional methods for gene function analysis cannot achieve the throughput necessary for large-scale exploration. Gene Function Analysis brings together a number of techniques that have developed recently for looking at gene function, including computational, biochemical and biological methods and protocols.

This book introduces the basic concepts and methods that are useful in the statistical analysis and modeling of the DNA-based marker and phenotypic data that arise in agriculture, forestry, experimental biology, and other fields. It concentrates on the linkage analysis of markers, map construction and quantitative trait locus (QTL) mapping, and assumes a background in regression analysis and maximum likelihood approaches. The strength of this book lies in the construction of general models and algorithms for linkage analysis, as well as in QTL mapping in any kind of crossed pedigrees initiated with inbred lines of crops.