Whitebark pine (Pinus albicaulis) forests are declining across most
of their range in North America because of the combined effects of
mountain pine beetle (Dendroctonus ponderosae) outbreaks, fire
exclusion policies, and the exotic pathogen Cronartium ribicola,
which infects five-needle white pines and causes the disease white
pine blister rust. The loss of this high-elevation tree species
poses serious consequences for upper subalpine ecosystems, both in
terms of impacts on biodiversity and losses in ecosystem processes;
whitebark pine is now a candidate species for listing under the
Endangered Species Act. Large, nutritious seeds produced by
whitebark pine are an important food for many bird and small mammal
species, as well as grizzly (Ursus arctos horribilis) and black
bears (Ursus americanus), and whitebark pine communities provide
habitat for many additional wildlife species. Whitebark pine seed
dispersal by Clark's nutcrackers (Nucifraga columbiana) combined
with hardy seedlings results in early whitebark pine community
development after fire and other disturbances; whitebark pine
seedlings survive on harsh, arid sites and may act as nurse trees
to less hardy conifers and vegetation. Whitebark pine at higher
elevations, where it is common in many regions, helps regulate snow
melt and reduce soil erosion. For these collective functions,
whitebark pine is considered both a keystone species for promoting
community diversity and a foundation species for promoting
community stability. Since more than 90 percent of whitebark pine
forests exist on public land in the United States and Canada, it is
important that government natural resource management agencies play
an important role in ensuring future presence of this tree species
by initiating concerted, coordinated, and comprehensive restoration
efforts. This is best accomplished through a coordinated,
trans-boundary restoration strategy that includes shared
infrastructure and expertise for conserving seeds, growing blister
rust-resistant seedlings, protecting trees, restoring ecosystem
processes, and promoting natural regeneration. We detail a
multi-scale strategy for restoring whitebark pine across its range
in the western United States and Canada. The strategy was compiled
by researchers, land managers, and resource specialists for use as
a reference for prioritizing, designing, and implementing
successful whitebark pine restoration activities across many scales
from stands to landscapes to its entire range. The whitebark pine
restoration strategy consists of the following principles: (1)
promote rust resistance, (2) conserve genetic diversity, (3) save
seed sources, and (4) employ restoration treatments. These guiding
principles are then used to implement the whitebark pine
restoration strategy using a set of possible actions: 1. assess
condition, 2. plan activities, 3. reduce pest impacts, 4. gather
seed, 5. grow seedlings, 6. protect seed sources, 7. implement
restoration treatments, 8. plant burned areas, 9. support research,
and 10. monitor activities. The strategy is also organized by six
spatial scales of analysis and organization: 1. range-wide, 2.
region (National Forest Region or Provincial Regions), 3. forest
(National Forest, National Park, and Canadian Forest District), 4.
landscape (watershed or landform), 5. stand, and 6. tree. At each
scale, we present four important factors in the restoration
strategy: (1) assessment, (2) restoration actions, (3) management
concerns, and (4) an example. Strategic restoration plans are
presented for the coarse-scale strategies, while illustrated
examples are presented for the finer scales (tree, stand, and
landscape).
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