What is Thinking? - Trying to Define an Equally Fascinating and Elusive Phenomenon Human thinking is probably the most complex phenomenon that evolution has come up with until now. There exists a broad spectrum of definitions, from subs- ing almost all processes of cognition to limiting it to language-based, sometimes even only to formalizable reasoning processes. We work with a "medium sized" definition according to which thinking encompasses all operations by which cog- tive agents link mental content in order to gain new insights or perspectives. Mental content is, thus, a prerequisite for and the substrate on which thinking operations are executed. The largely unconscious acts of perceptual object stabilization, ca- gorization, emotional evaluation - and retrieving all the above from memory inscriptions - are the processes by which mental content is generated, and are, therefore, seen as prerequisites for thinking operations. In terms of a differentia specifica, the notion of "thinking" is seen as narrower than the notion of "cognition" and as wider than the notion of "reasoning". Thinking is, thus, seen as a subset of cognition processes; and reasoning processes are seen as a subset of thinking. Besides reasoning, the notion of thinking includes also nonexplicit, intuitive, and associative processes of linking mental content. According to this definition, thinking is not dependant on language, i. e. also many animals and certainly all mammals show early forms of thinking.

What is Thinking? - Trying to Define an Equally Fascinating and Elusive Phenomenon Human thinking is probably the most complex phenomenon that evolution has come up with until now. There exists a broad spectrum of definitions, from subs- ing almost all processes of cognition to limiting it to language-based, sometimes even only to formalizable reasoning processes. We work with a "medium sized" definition according to which thinking encompasses all operations by which cog- tive agents link mental content in order to gain new insights or perspectives. Mental content is, thus, a prerequisite for and the substrate on which thinking operations are executed. The largely unconscious acts of perceptual object stabilization, ca- gorization, emotional evaluation - and retrieving all the above from memory inscriptions - are the processes by which mental content is generated, and are, therefore, seen as prerequisites for thinking operations. In terms of a differentia specifica, the notion of "thinking" is seen as narrower than the notion of "cognition" and as wider than the notion of "reasoning". Thinking is, thus, seen as a subset of cognition processes; and reasoning processes are seen as a subset of thinking. Besides reasoning, the notion of thinking includes also nonexplicit, intuitive, and associative processes of linking mental content. According to this definition, thinking is not dependant on language, i. e. also many animals and certainly all mammals show early forms of thinking.

G giebt Auskunft daruber, ob in einem Papier neben anderen Faserstoffen Fichten-, Tannen-, Kiefern- oder Espen-Stoff vor- handen ist, was selbstverstandlich auf den Harzgehalt des bethei- ligten Holzschliffes und auf die Bestimmung des vegetabilischen Leims von Einfluss ist, und dass sie somit das Resultat der q uantitati ven Analyse direct beruhrt. Aus letzterem Grunde habe ich die qualitative, Unter- suchungsweise, sowohl auf chemischem als auch auf physica- lischem Wege, in Kurze besprochen, wobei ich allerdings z. Th. aus der gros sen Quelle bekannter Thatsachen schoepfen musste; ich habe mich indessen auch hierbei bemuht, nur das anerkannt Beste und absolut Noethige wiederzugeben; einiges Neue aber, hoffe ich, wird der aufmerksame Leser auch in diesem Theile der Arbeit finden und bei eigenen Untersuchungen vielleicht nicht ohne Vortheil beachten. Auf den Aschengehalt der Papiere uud der betheiligten Bestandtheile musste naturlich, soweit sie die Bestimmungen der Faserstoffe und speciell des Holzschliffes beruhren, auch Bezug genommen werden; es ist indessen hier nur auf Papiere mit feuerbestandigen Erden Rucksicht genommen, weil einmal nur solche als Probepapiere zur Untersuchung vorlagen, und weil ferner Papieruntersuchungen, welche mit Aschenanalysen combinirt werden mussen, sich einfach in eine qualitative und eine quantitative Analyse zergliedern, welche keine Schwierigkeiten darbieten, besonders aber deshalb, weil es hier nur auf die Bestimmung des schwierigsten Factors, des Holzschliffes, ankam.