Muller glial cells ensheath all retinal neurons in vertebrate retinae. There are a multitude of functional interactions between neurons and Muller cells, including delivery of the light stimuli to the photoreceptor cells in the inverted vertebrate retina, a 'metabolic symbiosis' with the neurons, and the processing of visual information. Muller cells are also responsible for the maintenance of the homeostasis of the retinal extracellular milieu (ions, water, neuro-transmitter molecules, and pH). In vascularized retinae, Muller cells may also be involved in the control of angiogenesis, and the regulation of retinal blood flow. Virtually every disease of the retina is associated with a reactive Muller cell gliosis which, on the one hand, supports the survival of retinal neurons but, on the other hand, may accelerate the progress of neuronal degeneration:

Muller cells protect neurons via a release of neurotrophic factors. However, gliotic Muller cells display a dysregulation of various neuron-supportive functions. This contributes to a disturbance of retinal glutamate metabolism and ion homeostasis, and causes the development of retinal edema and neuronal cell death. Moreover, there are diseases evoking a primary Muller cell insufficiency, such as hepatic retinopathy and certain forms of glaucoma. Any impairment of supportive functions of Muller cells, primary or secondary, must cause and/or aggravate a dysfunction and loss of neurons, by increasing the susceptibility of neurons to stressful stimuli in the diseased retina.

Muller cells may be used in the future for novel therapeutic strategies to protect neurons against apoptosis (i.e. somatic gene therapy), or to differentiate retinal neurons from Muller/stem cells. Meanwhile, a proper understanding of the gliotic responses of Muller cells in the diseased retina, and of their protective vs. detrimental effects, is essential for the development of efficient therapeutic strategies that use and stimulate the neuron-supportive/-protective - and prevent the destructive - mechanisms of gliosis.

Muller cells may be used in the future for novel therapeutic strategies to protect neurons against apoptosis (for example, somatic gene therapy), or to differentiate retinal neurons from Muller/stem cells. Meanwhile, a proper understanding of the gliotic responses of Muller cells in the diseased retina, and of their protective vs. detrimental effects, is essential for the development of efficient therapeutic strategies that use and stimulate the neuron-supportive/-protective - and prevent the destructive - mechanisms of gliosis.

In mammals the glial (or glue) cells contribute some 50% of the volume of the brain. In contrast to the traditional view that they have a purely physically supportive role, research in the last three decades has shown that glia interact morphologically, biochemically and physiologically with neurons during changes in behaviour. The evidence suggests that glia may modulate neuronal activity and thereby influence behaviour. This 1998 book was the first to describe and discuss these neuronal-glial interactions in relation to behaviour. A distinguished set of authors discuss these interactions from a number of viewpoints, and the book will familiarise neuroscientists, zoologists, physiologists and psychologists with the new knowledge of how neurons and glial cells interact with each other to affect behaviour.