Unlike some other reproductions of classic texts (1) We have not used OCR(Optical Character Recognition), as this leads to bad quality books with introduced typos. (2) In books where there are images such as portraits, maps, sketches etc We have endeavoured to keep the quality of these images, so they represent accurately the original artefact. Although occasionally there may be certain imperfections with these old texts, we feel they deserve to be made available for future generations to enjoy.

Unlike some other reproductions of classic texts (1) We have not used OCR(Optical Character Recognition), as this leads to bad quality books with introduced typos. (2) In books where there are images such as portraits, maps, sketches etc We have endeavoured to keep the quality of these images, so they represent accurately the original artefact. Although occasionally there may be certain imperfections with these old texts, we feel they deserve to be made available for future generations to enjoy.

Traditionally the emphasis at each annual Denver X-ray Con ference is placed on a particular aspect of X-ray analysis. The past decade has seen a steady expansion of applications of port able X-ray analyzers and probes in the field, in boreholes and in plant process streams. With this in mind, the main theme of the current conference is field applications of X-ray fluorescence with particular reference to analysis of raw materials such as rocks, ores and coal. The Plenary Session took up this theme with two invited papers reviewing applications of X-ray emission techniques to geochemical, borehole and on-stream analysis, and recent developments in port able instruments for alloy, ore and other analyses. The third paper took us further afield with a review of X-ray spectrochemical analy sis on Mars, the Moon and Earth. It is evident that portable X-ray analyzers are finding more and more applications outside the conventional boundaries of X-ray spectrometry. Users are not analysts and sometimes not even scien tists. Until recently this trend has been hindered by the "scien tific nature" of the instruments; one needs to understand XRF meth ods in order to properly operate the instrument. Microprocessor technology has made possible the development of precalibrated, "smart" analyzers with readouts in quantities familiar to the user and interlocks to prevent erroneous operation. Further developments along these lines were reported at this conference."

The GAMM Committee for "Efficient Numerical Methods for Partial Differential Equations" organizes workshops on subjects concerning the algorithmical treat ment of partial differential equations. The topics are discretization methods like the finite element and finite volume method for various types of applications in structural and fluid mechanics. Particular attention is devoted to advanced solu tion techniques. th The series of such workshops was continued in 1993, January 22-24, with the 9 Kiel-Seminar on the special topic "Adaptive Methods Algorithms, Theory and Applications" at the Christian-Albrechts-University of Kiel. The seminar was attended by 76 scientists from 7 countries and 23 lectures were given. The list of topics contained general lectures on adaptivity, special discretization schemes, error estimators, space-time adaptivity, adaptive solvers, multi-grid me thods, wavelets, and parallelization. Special thanks are due to Michael Heisig, who carefully compiled the contribu tions to this volume. November 1993 Wolfgang Hackbusch Gabriel Wittum v Contents Page A. AUGE, G. LUBE, D. WEISS: Galerkin/Least-Squares-FEM and Ani- tropic Mesh Refinement. 1 P. BASTIAN, G. WmUM: Adaptive Multigrid Methods: The UG Concept. 17 R. BEINERT, D. KRONER: Finite Volume Methods with Local Mesh Alignment in 2-D. 38 T. BONK: A New Algorithm for Multi-Dimensional Adaptive Nume- cal Quadrature. 54 F. A. BORNEMANN: Adaptive Solution of One-Dimensional Scalar Conservation Laws with Convex Flux. 69 J. CANU, H. RITZDORF: Adaptive, Block-Structured Multigrid on Local Memory Machines. 84 S. DAHLKE, A. KUNaTH: Biorthogonal Wavelets and Multigrid. 99 B. ERDMANN, R. H. W. HOPPE, R."

We live on a dynamic Earth shaped by both natural processes and the impacts of humans on their environment. It is in our collective interest to observe and understand our planet, and to predict future behavior to the extent possible, in order to effectively manage resources, successfully respond to threats from natural and human-induced environmental change, and capitalize on the opportunities ? social, economic, security, and more ? that such knowledge can bring. By continuously monitoring and exploring Earth, developing a deep understanding of its evolving behavior, and characterizing the processes that shape and reshape the environment in which we live, we not only advance knowledge and basic discovery about our planet, but we further develop the foundation upon which benefits to society are built. Thriving on Our Changing Planet presents prioritized science, applications, and observations, along with related strategic and programmatic guidance, to support the U.S. civil space Earth observation program over the coming decade. Table of Contents Front Matter PART I: Report of the Steering Committee Summary 1 A Vision for the Decade 2 A Decadal Strategy 3 A Prioritized Program for Science, Applications, and Observations 4 Agency Programmatic Context 5 Conclusion PART II: Panel Inputs 6 Global Hydrological Cycles and Water Resources 7 Weather and Air Quality: Minutes to Subseasonal 8 Marine and Terrestrial Ecosystems and Natural Resources Management 9 Climate Variability and Change: Seasonal to Centennial 10 Earth Surface and Interior: Dynamics and Hazards Appendixes Appendix A: Program of Record Appendix B: Science and Applications Traceability Matrix Appendix C: Targeted Observables Table Appendix D: Request for Information and Responses from the Community Appendix E: Statement of Task Appendix F: Committee Member and Panel Biographies Appendix G: Acronyms and Abbreviations

Authorities agree that nutritional care for pregnant, about-to-be pregnant, and nursing women can prevent health problems that are costly in terms of both dollars and quality of life. Yet many women still receive little guidance regarding maternal nutrition. Now, health care professionals can turn to a handy, practical guide for help in smoothly integrating maternal nutritional care into their practices. Nutrition During Pregnancy and Lactation provides physicians, nurses, primary care providers, and midwives with a ready-made, step-by-step program for helping new mothers. The guide?based on the two most authoritative volumes available on the topic, both from the Institute of Medicine?Nutrition During Pregnancy (1990) and Nutrition During Lactation (1991)?makes the findings and recommendations detailed in these books readily accessible for daily use. In keeping with recommendations by the U.S. Surgeon General, the guide promotes breastfeeding and includes practical information for mothers on how to breastfeed. Providing background details, resource lists, and a "toolbox" of materials, this implementation guide makes nutritional care simple and straightforward. Part I walks the health care professional through the process of providing nutritional advice for new mothers?from the pre-pregnancy questionnaire to the final postpartum visit. It includes helpful tools such as weight charts and checklists to follow during each patient visit. It also offers suggestions on encouraging nutritional eating habits and helping patients with problems such as nausea and nursing twins. Part II offers a wide range of practical information and guidelines on important topics, such as serving culturally diverse populations, making dietary assessments throughout pregnancy and lactation, and providing dietary advice in understandable, day-to-day terms. The guide explains how to determine if patients need vitamin-mineral supplements and what regimens to recommend. And, it includes information on referring patients to federal food and nutrition programs. The guide is tabbed for quick reference and each page is designed for the reader to find information easily. Table of Contents Front Matter Part I: New Tools and Clinical Care Outlines, Introduction The Preconception/Interconception Visit The First Prenatal Visit Follow-Up Visits Postpartum Visits Part II: Supplementary Information, General Strategies for Providing Effective Nutritional Care Dietary Assessment and Guidance Assessing Weight Change Nutrient Supplementation Nutrition Referrals and Resources References Index

Adolescence?beginning with the onset of puberty and ending in the mid-20s?is a critical period of development during which key areas of the brain mature and develop. These changes in brain structure, function, and connectivity mark adolescence as a period of opportunity to discover new vistas, to form relationships with peers and adults, and to explore one's developing identity. It is also a period of resilience that can ameliorate childhood setbacks and set the stage for a thriving trajectory over the life course. Because adolescents comprise nearly one-fourth of the entire U.S. population, the nation needs policies and practices that will better leverage these developmental opportunities to harness the promise of adolescence?rather than focusing myopically on containing its risks. This report examines the neurobiological and socio-behavioral science of adolescent development and outlines how this knowledge can be applied, both to promote adolescent well-being, resilience, and development, and to rectify structural barriers and inequalities in opportunity, enabling all adolescents to flourish. Table of Contents Front Matter Summary Part I: Adolescence as a Period of Opportunity 1 Introduction 2 Adolescent Development 3 How Environment "Gets Under the Skin": The Continuous Interplay Between Biology and Environment 4 Inequity and Adolescence Part II: Using Developmental Knowledge to Assure Opportunity for All Youth 5 Introduction 6 Education 7 Health System 8 Child Welfare System 9 Justice System 10 The Scientific Opportunity References Appendix A: Assessing the Evidence Appendix B: Youth Engagement Appendix C: Biosketches ofCommittee Members and Staff Board on Children, Youth, and Families

The issue of greenhouse gas emissions has been at the forefront of environmental concerns for the past decade. A number of treaties, agreements, and voluntary programs have been proposed to reduce emissions - some of which have been the subject of intense debate and disagreement. Most notable among these proposals has been the Kyoto Protocol. Signed in 1997 by the United States and other industrialized countries, the Kyoto Protocol is a major international treaty imposing binding emission reduction targets on the developed world. However, the U.S. Senate never ratified Kyoto, and the Administration recently announced its intention of dropping out of the international negotiations surrounding the Protocol. Nonetheless, the general scientific consensus, that global warming is a real, significant issue, is not in dispute. The Administration is calling into question only the appropriate response to this issue, while explicitly recognizing the need for some response. Regardless of whether this response takes the form of a domestic voluntary program, an international treaty, or something in between these two extremes, it is likely that it will incorporate "market mechanisms" in some form or other. Most of the various emission reduction responses that have been proposed over the past few years include such mechanisms. The development and implementation of these mechanisms, designed to facilitate low-cost solutions to environmental problems, is part of a broader trend away from the command-and-control regulations of the past, and towards increased flexibility in meeting regulatory requirements. This new market-based approach has worked its way into greenhouse gas emission reduction programs and proposals, using the guidelines provided by the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), and developed into a new concept: credits for emission reduction projects undertaken beyond a country's borders. Perhaps the greatest challenge for this new concept is the development of a protocol, or set of protocols, for estimating the emission reductions associated with projects. There is considerable concern among various groups surrounding the accuracy of the emission reduction estimates upon which credits would be awarded. In addition, others, particularly any potential project developer, want protocols that can be implemented within reasonable costs. Nonetheless, all parties generally recognize the need for accuracy of credits and agree on the need for a standard approach or set of procedures for estimating project-level emission reductions. A number of such approaches have been proposed and the purpose of this report is to evaluate some of the key proposals. Specifically, the report presents a series of hypothetical case study analyses designed to test each proposed approach in the context of potential real world projects. The case studies have been selected to cover a broad range of sectors and project types. The goal is to identify the strengths and weaknesses of each approach, and based on the case study analyses, recommendations for improving and refining the different approaches are developed. Four different approaches are evaluated in this report: The approach officially proposed by the U.S. at the recent (COP-6) negotiations surrounding the Kyoto Protocol; The European Union's "Positive Technology List"; The U.S. National Energy Technology Laboratory's (NETL) technology matrix concept (the "full" technology matrix); A hybrid approach combining elements of the technology matrix with the official U.S. approach (the "hybrid" technology matrix). Each case study project is evaluated using each of the above four approaches. The results for each approach are analyzed, compared and contrasted; these critical analyses in turn reveal the strengths and weaknesses of the different approaches in the context of a variety of different project types.

Floods take a heavy toll on society, costing lives, damaging buildings and property, disrupting livelihoods, and sometimes necessitating federal disaster relief, which has risen to record levels in recent years. The National Flood Insurance Program (NFIP) was created in 1968 to reduce the flood risk to individuals and their reliance on federal disaster relief by making federal flood insurance available to residents and businesses if their community adopted floodplain management ordinances and minimum standards for new construction in flood prone areas. Insurance rates for structures built after a flood plain map was adopted by the community were intended to reflect the actual risk of flooding, taking into account the likelihood of inundation, the elevation of the structure, and the relationship of inundation to damage to the structure. Today, rates are subsidized for one-fifth of the NFIP's 5.5 million policies. Most of these structures are negatively elevated, that is, the elevation of the lowest floor is lower than the NFIP construction standard. Compared to structures built above the base flood elevation, negatively elevated structures are more likely to incur a loss because they are inundated more frequently, and the depths and durations of inundation are greater. Tying Flood Insurance to Flood Risk for Low-Lying Structures in the Floodplain studies the pricing of negatively elevated structures in the NFIP. This report review current NFIP methods for calculating risk-based premiums for these structures, including risk analysis, flood maps, and engineering data. The report then evaluates alternative approaches for calculating risk-based premiums and discusses engineering hydrologic and property assessment data needs to implement full risk-based premiums. The findings and conclusions of this report will help to improve the accuracy and precision of loss estimates for negatively elevated structures, which in turn will increase the credibility, fairness, and transparency of premiums for policyholders. Table of Contents Front Matter Summary 1 The National Flood Insurance Program and the Need for Accurate Rates 2 NFIP Procedures for Analyzing Flood Hazard and Calculating Insurance Rates 3 Methods for Assessing Flood Risk 4 Factors That Affect Risk-Based Premiums for Negatively Elevated Structures 5 Alternative Approaches and Implementation References Appendix A: Biographical Sketches of Committee Members Appendix B: Glossary Appendix C: Acronyms and Abbreviations

The Internet has changed the way we access the world. This is especially true for kids, who soak up new technologies like eager little sponges. They have access to an enormous array of material, including educational links, sports info, chat rooms?and, unfortunately, pornography. But we must approach our need to protect children with care to avoid placing unnecessary restrictions on the many positive features of the Internet. Youth, Pornography, and the Internet examines approaches to protecting children and teens from Internet pornography, threats from sexual predators operating on-line, and other inappropriate material on the Internet. The National Research Council's Computer Science and Telecommunications Board explores a number of fundamental questions: Who defines what is inappropriate material? Do we control Internet access by a 17-year-old in the same manner as for a 7-year-old? What is the role of technology and policy in solving such a problem in the context of family, community, and society? The book discusses social and educational strategies, technological tools, and policy options for how to teach children to make safe and appropriate decisions about what they see and experience on the Internet. It includes lessons learned from case studies of community efforts to intervene in kids' exposure to Internet porn. Providing a foundation for informed debate, this very timely and relevant book will be a must-read for a variety of audiences. Table of Contents Front Matter Executive Summary 1. Introduction 2. Technology 3. The Adult Online Entertainment Industry 4. Legal and Regulatory Issues 5. Children, Media, and Exposure to Sexually Explicit Material 6. The Research Base on the Impact of Exposure to Sexually Explicit Material: What Theory and Empirical Studies Offer 7. Beyond the Science: Perspectives on Impact and the Public Debate 8. Approaches to Protection from Inappropriate Material 9. Legal and Regulatory Tools 10. Social and Educational Strategies to Develop Personal and Community Responsibility 11. A Perspective on Technology-Based Tools 12. Technology-Based Tools for Users 13. Technology-Based Tools Available to Non-End Users 14. Findings, Conclusions, and Future Needs Appendix A: Information-Gathering Sessions of the Committee Appendix B: Glossary and Acronyms Appendix C: Selected Technology Issues Appendix D: Site Visit Synthesis Appendix E: Biographies Index

The peaking of world oil production presents the U.S. and the world with an unprecedented risk management problem. As peaking is approached, liquid fuel prices and price volatility will increase dramatically, and, without timely mitigation, the economic, social, and political costs will be unprecedented. Viable mitigation options exist on both the supply and demand sides, but to have substantial impact, they must be initiated more than a decade in advance of peaking. In 2003, the world consumed just under 80 million barrels per day (MM bpd) of oil. U.S. consumption was almost 20 MM bpd, two-thirds of which was in the transportation sector. The U.S. has a fleet of about 210 million automobiles and light trucks (vans, pick-ups, and SUVs). The average age of U.S. automobiles is nine years. Under normal conditions, replacement of only half the automobile fleet will require 10-15 years. The average age of light trucks is seven years. Under normal conditions, replacement of one-half of the stock of light trucks will require 9-14 years. While significant improvements in fuel efficiency are possible in automobiles and light trucks, any affordable approach to upgrading will be inherently time-consuming, requiring more than a decade to achieve significant overall fuel efficiency improvement. Besides further oil exploration, there are commercial options for increasing world oil supply and for the production of substitute liquid fuels: 1) Improved Oil Recovery (IOR) can marginally increase production from existing reservoirs; one of the largest of the IOR opportunities is Enhanced Oil Recovery (EOR), which can help moderate oil production declines from reservoirs that are past their peak production: 2) Heavy oil / oil sands represents a large resource of lower grade oils, now primarily produced in Canada and Venezuela; those resources are capable of significant production increases;. 3) Coal liquefaction is a well-established technique for producing clean substitute fuels from the world's abundant coal reserves; and finally, 4) Clean substitute fuels can be produced from remotely located natural gas, but exploitation must compete with the world's growing demand for liquefied natural gas. However, world-scale contributions from these options will require 10-20 years of accelerated effort. Dealing with world oil production peaking will be extremely complex, involve literally trillions of dollars and require many years of intense effort. To explore these complexities, three alternative mitigation scenarios were analyzed: Scenario I assumed that action is not initiated until peaking occurs. Scenario II assumed that action is initiated 10 years before peaking. Scenario III assumed action is initiated 20 years before peaking. For this analysis estimates of the possible contributions of each mitigation option were developed, based on an assumed crash program rate of implementation. Our approach was simplified in order to provide transparency and promote understanding. Our estimates are approximate, but the mitigation envelope that results is believed to be directionally indicative of the realities of such an enormous undertaking. The inescapable conclusion is that more than a decade will be required for the collective contributions to produce results that significantly impact world supply and demand for liquid fuels.

Stabilization of atmospheric concentration of greenhouse gases, of which CO2 is the most important, ....at a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system...1 is a widely accepted policy goal. When concerted actions start to be taken to achieve this goal, fossil generating stations, as large point sources of CO2, may be required to make disproportionately large emission reductions because doing so will be cost effective. At present natural gas combined cycle (NGCC) is the technology of choice for providing new electric generating capacity in the U.S. for reasons that include environmental performance, thermal efficiency, high availability compared to renewables, and relatively low capital cost. Relatively low specific carbon emissions (kg C or kg CO2/kWh) compared to coal generators is another attraction of NGCC. Yet NGCC cannot be the only response of the electric power industry to the challenge of global warming even if affordable supplies of natural gas were assured into the indefinite future. Climate modelers estimate that upwards of 60% reduction in greenhouse gas emissions from current levels will be needed to stabilize atmospheric composition. That is a greater reduction than could be achieved even if all coal -fired units were replaced with state-of-art NGCC. This paper invites serious consideration of fossil fueled electricity generation technologies that capture nominally 90% of CO2 emissions and use the CO2 to conduct enhanced oil recovery. Carbon sequestration of this kind represents a fundamentally different approach to reducing carbon emissions that has potential not less than traditional approaches such as improvement of thermal efficiency of generation, improvement of end use efficiency, and use of renewables. There is no immediate prospect for commercial deployment of fossil generation with CO2 capture and sequestration, however, because with no value assigned to reducing carbon emissions, such processes are more expensive than conventional fossil generation. One approach to overcoming this problem is to investigate use of a carbon tax or carbon emission cap. This study takes a different approach. It considers how the economics of natural gas- and coal-based generation with carbon capture would fare if a market for the collected CO2 is assured for practice of EOR. Coal-based IGCC with CO2 capture and sequestration would yield only one fifth the specific carbon emissions (kg C or kg CO2 /kWh) as would state-of-art NGCC. California appears to be a good venue for consideration of IGCC+S: there is need for additional generating capacity and an unserved market for CO2 that could be used to conduct enhanced oil recovery. In this paper, a probabilistic analysis is conducted to determine Required Selling Price of Electricity (RSPOE) and expected rate of return on common stock equity for three fossil generating technologies: NGCC, NGCC+S (NGCC with capture and sequestration), and IGCC+S. Variables treated probabilistically are the costs of natural gas and coal fuels, and the values of electricity and CO2 products. Predictions of prices prepared by the Energy Information Agency are used together with measures of price variability based on historic price fluctuations. Installation of new generating plant is assumed to occur in 2010 and operate for a 20 year book life to 2030. It is shown that when CO2 can be sold at historically realized prices for use in enhanced oil recovery (EOR), IGCC+S is expected to be profitable with no subsidy for avoidance of CO2 emissions. Expected profitability of NGCC is greater than that of IGCC+S, but so is the uncertainty of RSPOE and expected rate of return on common stock equity, due principally to uncertainty of natural gas price. NGCC+S exhibits both a higher RSPOE and higher uncertainty of RSPOE than either of the other technologies.

The transportation sector accounts for a large and growing share of global greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. Worldwide, motor vehicles emit well over 900 million metric tons of carbon dioxide (CO2) each year, accounting for more than 15 percent of global fossil fuel-derived CO2 emissions. In the industrialized world alone, 20-25 percent of GHG emissions come from the transportation sector. The share of transport-related emissions is growing rapidly due to the continued increase in transportation activity. In 1950, there were only 70 million cars, trucks, and buses on the world's roads. By 1994, there were about nine times that number, or 630 million vehicles. Since the early 1970s, the global fleet has been growing at a rate of 16 million vehicles per year. This expansion has been accompanied by a similar growth in fuel consumption. If this kind of linear growth continues, by the year 2025 there will be well over one billion vehicles on the world's roads. In a response to the significant growth in transportation-related GHG emissions, governments and policy makers worldwide are considering methods to reverse this trend. However, due to the particular make-up of the transportation sector, regulating and reducing emissions from this sector poses a significant challenge. Unlike stationary fuel combustion, transportation-related emissions come from dispersed sources. Only a few point-source emitters, such as oil/natural gas wells, refineries, or compressor stations, contribute to emissions from the transportation sector. The majority of transport-related emissions come from the millions of vehicles traveling the world's roads. As a result, successful GHG mitigation policies must find ways to target all of these small, non-point source emitters, either through regulatory means or through various incentive programs. To increase their effectiveness, policies to control emissions from the transportation sector often utilize indirect means to reduce emissions, such as requiring specific technology improvements or an increase in fuel efficiency. Site-specific project activities can also be undertaken to help decrease GHG emissions, although the use of such measures is less common. Sample activities include switching to less GHG-intensive vehicle options, such as electric vehicles (EVs) or hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs). As emissions from transportation activities continue to rise, it will be necessary to promote both types of abatement activities in order to reverse the current emissions path. This Resource Guide focuses on site- and project-specific transportation activities. This National Energy Technology Laboratory (NETL) publication, "Battery-Powered Electric and Hybrid Electric Vehicles to Reduce Greenhouse Gas (GHG) Emissions: A Resource Guide for Project Development" provides national and international project developers with a guide on how to estimate and document the GHG emission reduction benefits and/or penalties of battery-powered and hybrid-electric vehicle projects. This primer also provides a resource for the creation of GHG emission reduction projects for the Activities Implemented Jointly (AIJ) Pilot Phase and in anticipation of other market-based project mechanisms proposed under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). Though it will be necessary for project developers and other entities to evaluate the emission benefits of each project on a case-by-case basis, this primer will provide a guide for determining which data and information to include during the process of developing the project proposal.

Over the last decade, concern about the issues of global climate change and rising greenhouse gas emissions has grown significantly. This concern has spurred an elaborate series of international meetings and agreements seeking to stabilize atmospheric greenhouse gas concentrations. In 1992, at Rio de Janeiro, more than 160 countries, including the United States, signed the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). The signatories were in agreement regarding the potential negative effects of climate change under a business as usual future. Under the Convention, the developed countries (referred to as Annex I countries) were assigned primary responsibility for addressing the climate change issue. However, at the first two Conferences of Parties1 called to discuss methods for implementing the Convention, a strong debate ensued regarding what policy instruments should be used to curb global climate change, and what, if any, targets and timetables should be set for achieving emission reductions. Most Annex I nations announced a series of voluntary targets and initiatives for meeting emission reduction goals. By 1996, it had become clear that greenhouse gas emission levels in most Annex I countries were rising despite voluntary efforts to reduce emissions. A consensus for firmer targets and timetables was building. At the Third Conference of Parties, held in Kyoto, Japan in December 1997 a series of firm emission reduction targets were agreed to by the Parties. Developed countries agreed to reduce their greenhouse gas emissions by an average of 5.2 percent from 1990 levels by 2008-2012. While the resulting "Kyoto Protocol" was signed in 1997 by the United States and other industrialized countries, it was never ratified by the U.S. Senate, and the Administration recently announced its intention of dropping out of the negotiations surrounding the Protocol. Nonetheless, the general scientific consensus that global warming is a real, significant issue is not in dispute. The Administration is calling into question only the appropriate response to the issue, while explicitly recognizing the need for some response. Regardless of whether this response takes the form of a domestic voluntary program, an international treaty, or something in between these two extremes, it is likely that it will incorporate "market mechanisms" in some form or another. The concept of flexible, market-based mechanisms is an essential element to the Convention and the Kyoto agreement. Market mechanisms are designed to facilitate low-cost solutions to environmental problems. This new concept awards credits for emission reduction activities undertaken beyond a country's borders. In order to estimate emission reductions arising from such market-based emissions reduction projects, the emissions generated by the project itself must be measured and subtracted from some baseline representing what emissions would have been in the absence of the project. The technology matrix, originally proposed by the National Energy Technology Laboratory (NETL) in the report Developing Emission Baselines for Market-based Mechanisms: A Case Study Approach, is a potential method for estimating the baseline. It consists of a selected list of greenhouse gas abating technologies, along with emission rate benchmarks for each technology. In this document, a technology matrix was developed for ten selected technologies, for the countries of India and Ukraine. The basic technology matrix development approach was the same for all of the stated technologies, and for both countries. For a technology to "qualify" for the selected list of greenhouse gas abating technologies, it must first be subjected to a rigorous test to demonstrate that projects utilizing the technology are "additional" to those that would have been implemented under "business as usual" circumstances.

The transportation sector accounts for a large and growing share of global greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. Worldwide, motor vehicles emit well over 900 million metric tons of carbon dioxide (CO2) each year, accounting for more than 15 percent of global fossil fuel-derived CO2 emissions. In the industrialized world alone, 20-25 percent of GHG emissions come from the transportation sector. The share of transport-related emissions is growing rapidly due to the continued increase in transportation activity. In 1950, there were only 70 million cars, trucks, and buses on the world's roads. By 1994, there were about nine times that number, or 630 million vehicles. Since the early 1970s, the global fleet has been growing at a rate of 16 million vehicles per year. This expansion has been accompanied by a similar growth in fuel consumption. If this kind of linear growth continues, by the year 2025 there will be well over one billion vehicles on the world's roads. In a response to the significant growth in transportation-related GHG emissions, governments and policy makers worldwide are considering methods of addressing this trend. However, due to the particular make-up of the transportation sector, regulating and reducing emissions from this sector poses a significant challenge. Unlike stationary fuel combustion, transportation-related emissions come from dispersed sources. Only a few point-source emitters, such as oil/natural gas wells, refineries, or compressor stations, contribute to emissions related to the transportation sector. The majority of transport-related emissions come from the millions of vehicles traveling the world's roads. As a result, successful GHG mitigation policies must find ways to target all of these small, non-point source emitters, either through regulatory means or through various incentive programs. To increase their effectiveness, policies to control emissions from the transportation sector often utilize indirect means to reduce emissions, such as requiring specific technology improvements or an increase in fuel efficiency. Site-specific project activities can also be undertaken to help decrease GHG emissions, although the use of such measures is less common. These activities include switching to less GHG-intensive vehicle options, such as natural gas vehicles (NGVs). As emissions from transportation activities continue to rise, it will be necessary to promote both types of abatement activities in order to reverse the current emissions path. This Resource Guide focuses on site- and project-specific transportation activities. To date, only a few projects deploying NGV technologies have been developed and implemented with the explicit intent of reducing GHG emissions and participating in international GHG reduction initiatives. Therefore, experience with quantifying, evaluating, and verifying GHG emission reductions from natural gas vehicle projects is almost non-existent. This is a problem as there are many issues unique to the transportation sector, which should be resolved before adequate guidelines can be developed for evaluating transportation-related projects. Issues that will require further analysis and guidance include: 1. Methods for accurately estimating emission reductions for a dispersed number of sources; 2. Procedures for determining project boundaries and relevant GHG emission sources; 3. Options for minimizing transaction costs of validating, monitoring, verifying, and certifying potential emission reductions; and 4. Guidance on using a full fuel-cycle or tailpipe emission analysis to estimate project emissions. The main purpose of this manual is to provide information on quantifying and documenting GHG emission reductions from NGV projects. Moreover, to provide potential project developers with an overview of project opportunities, the manual also includes information on NGV technology cost and availability and discusses the future of the alternative fuel vehicle (AFV) industry as a whole.