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The Six Day War of June 1967 saw the Israel Defense Force (IDF)
achieve a decisive military victory over Egypt, Jordan, and Syria
while sustaining relatively few casualties. Despite the subsequent
image of Israel as a regional military superpower, Egypt attacked
again in 1973, eventually resulting in a peace treaty that promised
to return the entire Sinai to Egypt. It is the contention of "The
1973 Arab-Israeli War: The Albatross of Decisive Victory" that the
IDF's dramatic 1967 victory unconsciously created an albatross in
the form of a belief in its own invulnerability coupled with the
belief that Egypt would perform as poorly in the next war as it had
in this one. In a spirit of overconfidence, Israel prepared to
fight its next war just as it had in 1967. The 1973 attack caught
Israel off guard, the Egyptians performed much better than
expected, and, even after the IDF recovered from its initial
stumbles, Egypt was by no means out of the game militarily. Once a
cease-fire took effect, the Israelis quickly grasped how ill
prepared their army had been for war and the resultant three weeks
of hard fighting and relatively heavy casualties. As the author
notes, "If the United States had experienced equivalent losses in
the Vietnam War, it would have suffered 200,000 American dead - a
figure four times the actual number." Given this situation,
Egyptian President Anwar Sadat quickly proposed a negotiated peace,
which a suddenly war-weary Israeli public warily accepted. Both as
an incisive narrative of the 1973 war and an analysis of the
self-deception and overconfidence that too decisive a victory can
breed, "The 1973 Arab-Israeli War" is an invaluable work of
scholarship as well as a cautionary tale for students and
practitioners of modern warfare. Orginally published in 1996: 104
p. maps. ill.
On 7 December 1941 the United States suffered a devastating
surprise attack that thrust it into a worldwide war. Our enemy had
extensively planned the attack, conducted detailed reconnaissance
of its target to determine how to achieve the most destruction, and
had innovatively planned the operation to overcome all obstacles.
Two services that needed to work together were never ordered to do
so, losing synergy that was sorely needed. The United States had
indications that an attack was possible but had no single agency to
gather all of the available information for an analysis that would
suggest an attack. When the attack started, there were indications
that something large was happening, but the word was never spread,
and our enemy's attack was devastating. Sixty years later the
United States was again thrust it into a worldwide war. On 11
September 2001 enemies of our nation conducted an overwhelming
surprise attack against our homeland. Our enemy had again
meticulously planned the operation and conducted extensive
reconnaissance of its targets before its destructive attacks. Many
agencies in our government had indications of an attack, but again,
there was no single agency that analyzed all available intelligence
to provide us a warning. As word of the attack spread, people
refused to accept that the impossible was happening, and again our
enemy delivered an overwhelming attack. As our nation prosecutes
the global war on terrorism, it is imperative that we in the
profession of arms study those events in which our homeland has
been successfully and directly attacked in the past. While
attacking our enemies around the world, we must first ensure that
our homeland remains completely protected and safe. Not only should
we study the tactics, techniques, and procedures of recent
operations, but we also need to study history-events where we
analyze the actions of both attacked and defender so we are better
prepared to handle similar situations that may arise in the future.
We should study what mistakes we made and what things we did well
as well as the enemy's successes and failures. We must do all of
this to increase our ability to prevent another attack on the
United States. The United States is a nation in which it is easy to
move about and see, even in a time of war, and our homeland is now
a part of the battlespace, a target for our enemies. How do we
prevent an enemy from observing a target when it is not overtly
breaking the law? Our many intelligence agencies provide
outstanding intelligence, but how do we gather all of the
information to synergistically determine our enemies' intentions
and get this information to the commanders who need it? Our job is
to keep America safe, and even when we are in the midst of fighting
a war, it is critical that we take the time to study the past so we
do not make the same mistakes in the future. All dates used in this
book are Hawaiian time (Japan is one day ahead of Hawaii). The
attack on Pearl Harbor occurred on 7 December, which was 8 December
in Japan.
On 13 July 2008, nine American Soldiers perished while fighting a
pitched battle in the village of Wanat in Afghanistan's Waygal
Valley. On that day, the men of Company C, 2d Battalion, 503d
Parachute Infantry Regiment, endured four hours of intense close
quarters combat and mounting casualties. The contingent of 49
United States and 24 Afghan National Army Soldiers valiantly
defended their small outpost against a coordinated attack by a
determined insurgent force armed with rocket propelled grenades and
automatic weapons. Despite the initial advantage of tactical
surprise and numerical superiority, it was the insurgents who
ultimately broke contact and withdrew from Combat Outpost Kahler.
Army historians recognized the need to better understand the Battle
of Wanat and ensure those who followed learned from the experiences
of the courageous Soldiers who defended their outpost with such
tenacity. As initial reports from the battle were received, the
Combat Studies Institute at Fort Leavenworth, Kansas began to
prepare a historical analysis of the circumstances of the Battle of
Wanat, launching an exhaustive research effort that produced a
comprehensive and compelling example of contemporary history. This
study offers an objective narrative of the events surrounding the
Battle of Wanat. It does not seek to draw final conclusions or to
second guess decisions made before or during the heat of battle.
Rather, it is an implement of learning, allowing the reader to see
the events of that day through the eyes of the leaders and Soldiers
of Task Force Rock. It is meant to provide context to the chaos and
complexity of modern conflict, and to help the reader better
understand and appreciate the nature of operations in an era of
persistent conflict. Finally, this study serves to honor and
preserve the memories of the nine brave men who gave their lives at
Combat Outpost Kahler.
This study, "Survival Through Adaptations: The Chinese Red Army and
the Extermination Campaigns, 1927-1936," analyzes the Chinese Red
Army from 1927 to 1936 to determine how the Red Army survived
attacks from external military forces and also successfully
overcame the threats to its existence posed by changing Chinese
Communist Party (CCP) policies. During this period, the CCP
attempted to develop, expand, and professionalize the Chinese Red
Army as a way to defend Communist base areas from a series of
Kuomingtang (KMT) Extermination Campaigns. Also during these years,
changes in the CCP leadership often placed the Red Army in
dangerous situations by underestimating the KMT military threat and
overestimating Red Army capabilities. This re-examination of the
origin and development of the Chinese People's Liberation Army
looks at the Chinese Red Army's strategy, tactics, organization,
and training and identifies four themes that helped it adapt and
survive: a pragmatic strategy focused on long-term success;
creating local populace support through adaptation; strong soldier
recruiting, training, and retention; and a comprehensive officer
development system.
Ad bellum Pace Parati: prepared in peace for war. This sentiment
was much on the mind of Captain Arthur L. Wagner as he contemplated
the quality of military education at the Infantry and Cavalry
School at Fort Leavenworth, Kansas, during the 1890s.
In July 2002 the Combat Studies Institute (CSI) was reconstituted
and given a new charter by the US Army Training and Doctrine
Command (TRADOC) commander, General John Abrams. One of the three
missions outlined in that charter is to conduct original,
interpretive research on historical topics pertinent to the current
doctrinal concerns of the US Army. Having published some 10 works
in the intervening two years, CSI is now poised to initiate a new
series addressing important facets of the Global War on Terrorism.
Lieutenant Colonel Louis DiMarco's Traditions, Changes, and
Challenges: Military Operations and the Middle Eastern City is the
first in that series called Occasional Papers. The Middle East is
one of the most urbanized regions of the world, and growth
continues at an unprecedented rate. With operations ongoing in the
Middle East today, it is fitting that this inaugural study should
focus on military aspects of the urban areas of that region. There
is an undoubted need for US military planners to possess a solid
foundation of military history, cultural awareness, and an
understanding of the intricacies of city design and function in
this critical region. Each conflict brings its own challenges and
dynamics. The challenges of a Middle Eastern fight require decisive
involvement in that region's cities. The enemy is adaptive-we must
be adaptive as well. This call to study and understand history and
culture is the first step along that road to critical thinking and
adaptability. The purpose of this work is to examine the major
features of the Middle Eastern city and evaluate the military
significance of those features. It intends to serve as a starting
point for military professionals, particularly commanders and key
staff officers at the Army battalion through corps level, planning
or conducting operations in the region. This study should provide
the context within which more detailed study, evaluation, and
observation can be conducted. Although this study is mindful of the
ongoing Operation IRAQI FREEDOM (OIF) fight, it was initiated
before OIF began and does not specifically reflect its area of
operations or lessons learned. This study emphasizes the
traditional aspects of the Middle Eastern city because those
features are most unique and distinct from western European and
North American city design with which military professionals are
familiar. In addition, the old city core is often the center of
religious activity and thus is disproportionately politically and
socially influential. The physical aspects of the traditional
Middle Eastern city are examined here in detail-mosques, suqs,
residences, and quarters. Also examined in some depth is the less
obvious relationship between the Islamic religion and the Middle
Eastern urban environment. How the modern Middle Eastern city has
changed from its traditional form and the challenges associated
with that rapid change are also covered in this study. These facets
of the old Middle Eastern city are examined by reference to
contemporary travel guides; academic works in the fields of Middle
East history, urban geography, history, architecture, and city
design; appropriate military manuals and publications; and
contemporary travel narratives. This work connects the description
of Middle Eastern city design to the conduct of full-spectrum
military urban operations. It does this through referencing
American and Israeli urban warfare experts, current Army and Joint
doctrine described in US Army Field Manual 3-06, Urban Operations
and Joint Publication 3-06, Joint Urban Operations, other relevant
official publications, and historical experiences. Although the
author did conduct limited travel in some of the region's urban
centers, circumstances require that this paper primarily rely on
open-source research. Finally, the reader should understand that
this work is a survey of general regional characteristics.
The Law of War: Can 20th-Century Standards Apply to the Global War
on Terrorism? is the ninth offering in the Combat Studies
Institute's (CSI) Global War On Terrorism (GWOT) Occasional Papers
series. Mr. David Cavaleri, a retired Armor lieutenant colonel and
CSI historian, has produced a study that examines the evolution and
continued applicability of the corpus, both conventional and
customary, that constitutes the law of war. As background, Mr.
Cavaleri provides a theoretical framework and the development of
the law within Western and, specifically, US Army doctrine and
regulation. He then presents a case study of the British
suppression of the Mau Mau insurgency in 1950s Kenya, a conflict
with particular resonance today. Some of the more relevant
characteristics of the "emergency," as it was called, include the
clash between Western and non-Western cultures and an initially
asymmetric fight between conventional security forces and loosely
organized, poorly equipped insurgents. The genesis of this study is
the public discourse, both explicit and implicit, asserting the
possibility that the GWOT may require new rules and new law-of-war
prescripts. This important discussion is fraught with complexities
and long-term implications; the moral force in warfare is
incredibly significant and any changes to the legal framework in
place must be very carefully considered. Do we follow the law of
war to the letter, do we remain "consistent with the principles of
Geneva," or do we approach the conflict as a new challenge
requiring fundamental revisions to the law? These are the options
Mr. Cavaleri addresses, and we are pleased to contribute this
Occasional Paper to the debate. In 1630 the first governor of
Massachusetts, John Winthrop, wrote a sermon titled "A Model of
Christian Charity" in which he enjoined his fellow colonists to
make Boston a "city set on a hill." Subsequent political leaders,
President Ronald Reagan for one, have periodically employed that
image to portray the United States as a beacon of moral fortitude
and Western character. This perception of the United States as a
"shining city" creates a dilemma caused by the friction between the
regulatory principles of the law of war as codified in the Geneva
Conventions of 1949 and the military necessity of responding to
non-Western tactics, techniques, and procedures (TTP) now
encountered during the Global War on Terrorism (GWOT). This study
is intended to generate discussion about the application of the law
of war during 21st-century military campaigns conducted in the
contemporary operational environment (COE). It combines a review of
the documentary evolution of the law of war with a historical case
study of the British experience in Kenya between 1952 and 1960
against the Mau Mau insurgents. It makes no claim that every lesson
learned by the British during that counterinsurgency operation can
be directly applied by the United States to the challenges of the
GWOT, but this analysis does offer some insight about applying the
law of war to an unfamiliar, non-Western environment. The debate
concerning the law of war's applicability will grow more vocal as
non-state enemies of the United States adapt TTP to exploit
perceived centers of gravity like public opinion. In anticipation
of that escalating debate, this analysis offers the following as
its overarching question: Is the current version of the law of war
suited to the COE in general and the GWOT in particular?
In the years after invading Iraq and Afghanistan, the US military
realized that it had a problem: How does a military force set the
economic conditions for security success? This problem was
certainly not novel-the military had confronted it before in such
diverse locations as Grenada, Haiti, Bosnia, and Kosovo. The scale
and complexity of the problem, however, were unlike anything
military planners had confronted beforehand. This was especially
the case in Iraq, where some commentators expected oil production
to drive reconstruction.1 When the fragile state of Iraq's
infrastructure and a rapidly deteriorating security situation
prevented this from happening, the problem became even more vexing:
Should a military force focus on security first, or the economy?
How can it do both? This is the challenge of Stability Economics.
Since the early 20th century the US Army has used Civil War and
other battlefields as "outdoor classrooms" in which to educate and
train its officers. Employing a methodology developed at Fort
Leavenworth, Kansas, in 1906, both the U.S. Army Command and
General Staff College and US Army War College conducted numerous
battlefield staff rides to prepare officers for duties in both war
and peace. Often interrupted by the exigencies of the nation's
wars, the tradition was renewed and reinvigorated at Fort
Leavenworth in the early 1980s. Since 1983 the Leavenworth Staff
Ride Team has guided military students on battlefields around the
world. For those unable to avail themselves directly of the team's
services the Combat Studies Institute has begun to produce a series
of staff ride guides to serve in lieu of a Fort Leavenworth
instructor. The newest volume in that series, Lieutenant Colonel
Jeffrey Gudmens' "Staff Ride Handbook for the Battle of Shiloh, 6-7
April 1862" is a valuable study that examines the key
considerations in planning and executing the campaign and battle.
Modern tacticians and operational planners will find themes that
still resonate. Gudmens demonstrates that leaders in Blue and Gray,
in facing the daunting tasks of this, the bloodiest battle to this
point on the continent, rose to the challenge. They were able to
meet this challenge through planning, discipline, ingenuity,
leadership, and persistence-themes worthy of reflection by today's
leaders. Combat Studies Institute.
The Combat Studies Institute (CSI) is pleased to present Long War
Occasional Paper 27, "The Challenge of Adaptation: The US Army in
the Aftermath of Conflict, 1953-2000," by CSI historian Mr. Robert
Davis. Using three case studies from the late twentieth century,
Davis examines the processes by which the US Army sought to prepare
itself for the future after the conclusion of a major conflict. It
is essentially a study of how, in the wake of major conflict, the
Army "learned its lessons." In each of these periods - post Korean
War, post Vietnam War, and post Cold War - the Army examined its
existing institutional structures and processes, force structure,
training and educational systems, and doctrine to prepare for an
uncertain future. Following the Korean War, the nation struggled to
define the role of ground forces in a Cold War era seemingly
dominated by airpower and nuclear weapons. The Army also wrestled
with the conceptual problem of creating a "dual-capable" force
which could fight on both nuclear and conventional battlefields.
President Kennedy's "Flexible Response" defense strategy and the
Vietnam War abruptly ended the Army's unsatisfactory Pentomic Era.
By contrast, after the Vietnam War the nation and the Army
re-emphasized a "threat based" approach to developing and measuring
its capabilities against the clearly defined military threats posed
by the USSR and the Warsaw Pact. During the seventeen years between
1973 and 1990, the Army implemented wide-ranging institutional,
doctrinal, training, educational and force structure changes which
yielded an Army of unprecedented capability by the first Gulf War
in 1991. After the end of the Cold War, however, the nation and the
Army faced a very uncertain national security situation without a
clearly definable threat. Like the advent of the nuclear era some
fifty years prior, the information age seemed to call into question
the role of ground forces in future military operations. Following
a decade of unconventional operations in the 1990s, the Army
launched another wide-ranging transformation effort in 1999 using a
new "capabilities based" model to prepare itself for uncertain
future military threats. The events of 9/11 and the declaration of
the war on terror in 2001 again refocused the nation and the Army
on the role of ground forces in the 21st century. This study
provides insights into how the US Army sought to prepare for the
future at the end of major conflicts, and suggests approaches which
Army leaders may wish to keep in mind as they continue to adapt to
evolving circumstances and realities.
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