The exploration of the upper atmosphere was given a jump start in the United States by German V-2 rockets - Hitler's "vengeance weapon" - captured at the end of World War II. The science performed with these missiles was largely determined by the missile itself, such as learning more about the medium through which a ballistic missile travels. Groups rapidly formed within the military and military-funded university laboratories to build instruments to investigate the Earth's upper atmosphere and ionosphere, the nature of cosmic radiation, and the ultraviolet spectrum of the Sun. Few, if any, members of these research groups had prior experience or demonstrated interests in atmospheric, cosmic-ray, or solar physics. Although scientific agendas were at first centered on what could be done with missiles and how to make ballistic missile systems work, reports on techniques and results were widely publicized as the research groups and their patrons sought scientific legitimacy and learned how to make their science an integral part of the national security state. The process by which these groups gained scientific and institutional authority was far from straightforward and offers useful insight both for the historian and for the scientist concerned with how specialties born within the military services became part of post-war American science.

In this astronomically spectacular, large-format photographic retrospective, National Geographic celebrates the impact of the Hubble Space Telescope in its 25th anniversary year. Highlighting the most eye-popping images, significant discoveries, and many ways that this telescope's visions have revolutionized our understanding of the universe, this book wil appeal to space aficionados and photography buffs alike. The Hubble Telescope has now gazed into deep space for 25 years, imaging galaxies, nebulas, and supernovas for a new picture of the universe and our place in it. In honor of its 25th anniversary, space historians David DeVorkin and Robert Smith team up again to tell the stories of 25 iconic moments in the illustrious telescope's career, illustrated with breathtaking, never-before-seen images. Here are the major challenges and triumphs, the key scientific findings, the brilliant scientists behind the scenes, and the public's love affair with a space telescope.