Jews and Judaism played a significant role in the history of the expansion of Europe to the west as well as in the history of the economic, social, and religious development of the New World. They played an important role in the discovery, colonization, and eventually exploitation of the resources of the New World. Alone among the European peoples who came to the Americas in the colonial period, Jews were dispersed throughout the hemisphere; indeed, they were the only cohesive European ethnic or religious group that lived under both Catholic and Protestant regimes, which makes their study particularly fruitful from a comparative perspective. As distinguished from other religious or ethnic minorities, the Jewish struggle was not only against an overpowering and fierce nature but also against the political regimes that ruled over the various colonies of the Americas and often looked unfavorably upon the establishment and tleration of Jewish communities in their own territory. Jews managed to survive and occasionally to flourish against all odds, and their history in the Americas is one of the more fascinating chapters in the early modern history of European expansion.

When Columbus arrived in the Americas there were, it is believed, as many as 2,000 distinct, mutually unintelligible tongues spoken in the western hemisphere, encompassing the entire area from the Arctic Circle to Tierra del Fuego. This astonishing fact has generally escaped the attention of historians, in part because many of these indigenous languages have since become extinct. And yet the burden of overcoming America's language barriers was perhaps the one problem faced by all peoples of the New World in the early modern era: African slaves and Native Americans in the Lower Mississippi Valley; Jesuit missionaries and Huron-speaking peoples in New France; Spanish conquistadors and the Aztec rulers. All of these groups confronted America's complex linguistic environment, and all of them had to devise ways of transcending that environment - a problem that arose often with life or death implications. For the first time, historians, anthropologists, literature specialists, and linguists have come together to reflect, in the fifteen original essays presented in this volume, on the various modes of contact and communication that took place between the Europeans and the "Natives." A particularly important aspect of this fascinating collection is the way it demonstrates the interactive nature of the encounter and how Native peoples found ways to shape and adapt imported systems of spoken and written communication to their own spiritual and material needs.

When Columbus arrived in the Americas there were, it is believed, as many as 2,000 distinct, mutually unintelligible tongues spoken in the western hemisphere, encompassing the entire area from the Arctic Circle to Tierra del Fuego. This astonishing fact has generally escaped the attention of historians, in part because many of these indigenous languages have since become extinct. And yet the burden of overcoming America's language barriers was perhaps the one problem faced by all peoples of the New World in the early modern era: African slaves and Native Americans in the Lower Mississippi Valley; Jesuit missionaries and Huron-speaking peoples in New France; Spanish conquistadors and the Aztec rulers. All of these groups confronted America's complex linguistic environment, and all of them had to devise ways of transcending that environment - a problem that arose often with life or death implications. For the first time, historians, anthropologists, literature specialists, and linguists have come together to reflect, in the fifteen original essays presented in this volume, on the various modes of contact and communication that took place between the Europeans and the "Natives." A particularly important aspect of this fascinating collection is the way it demonstrates the interactive nature of the encounter and how Native peoples found ways to shape and adapt imported systems of spoken and written communication to their own spiritual and material needs.

This impressive volume shows that the history of minorities - specifically that of a diaspora - can open up completely new perspectives on the 'great' questions and developments of general history." . Zeitschrift fur Geschichtswissenschaft ..". this magnificent and much-needed volume ... is remarkably free, factual or interpretive." . American Jewish History "The age-old tension between value-free history and history with a moral is implicit throughout this fine volume." . The Jerusalem Report "A substantial contribution to the scholarship on Indian Native-American]-European relations ... Specialists will find new nuggets to challenge existing interpretations, while readers new to the topic will find useful introductions and more detailed case studies that give some idea of the current issues under scholarly debate. All readers will experience the benefits of looking at one topic comparatively across vast amounts of space and time." . Itinerario Jews and Judaism played a significant role in the history of the expansion of Europe to the west as well as in the history of the economic, social, and religious development of the New World. They played an important role in the discovery, colonization, and eventually exploitation of the resources of the New World. Alone among the European peoples who came to the Americas in the colonial period, Jews were dispersed throughout the hemisphere; indeed, they were the only cohesive European ethnic or religious group that lived under both Catholic and Protestant regimes, which makes their study particularly fruitful from a comparative perspective. As distinguished from other religious or ethnic minorities, the Jewish struggle was not only against an overpowering and fierce nature but also against the political regimes that ruled over the various colonies of the Americas and often looked unfavorably upon the establishment and tleration of Jewish communities in their own territory. Jews managed to survive and occasionally to flourish against all odds, and their history in the Americas is one of the more fascinating chapters in the early modern history of European expansion. Paolo Bernardini was a Fellow of the Princeton Institute for Advanced Study and of the Royal Historical Society. Currently he is Resident Director of the Padova Program, Boston University. Norman Fiering is the author of two books that were awarded the Merle Curti Prize for Intellectual History by the Organization of American Historians and of numerous articles. Since 1983, he has been Director of the John Carter Brown Library at Brown University."

In January 1804, the once wealthy colony of Saint-Domingue declared its independence from France and adopted the Amerindian name "Haiti." Independence was the outcome of the extraordinary uprising of the colony's slaves. Although a central event in the history of the French in the New World, the full significance of the revolution has yet to be realized. These essays deepen our understanding of Haiti during the period from 1791 to 1815. They consider the colony's history and material culture; its "free people of color"; the events leading up to the revolution and its violent unfolding; the political and economic fallout from the revolution; and its cultural representations.

Simon Bolivar was without a doubt the most famous and most controversial leader of the Spanish American wars of independence. Much is known of his biography: he led an army that liberated an expanse of South America equivalent to that conquered by Napoleon; crafted the union of Venezuela, New Granada, and Ecuador into the republic of Gran Colombia; outlined the plan for a defensive league of former Spanish-American colonies; and wrote the first Bolivian constitution. He also died in exile after the rejection of his arbitrary and dictatorial rule in Colombia. This volume takes a step back from both glorification and vilification to reassess Bolivar's life and legacy. A distinguished group of historians takes a fresh look at the impact of "the Liberator" as warrior, political thinker and leader, internationalist, continentalist, reformer, and revolutionary. They make a powerful statement about the importance of biography and the relevance of the individual in explaining historical events. A balanced yet critical appraisal of Bolivar's role in the Spanish-American wars of independence, this in-depth collection offers a persuasive explanation of why the Bolivarian legend and cult has persisted. It is essential reading for anyone who wants to understand Simon Bolivar-the man and the legacy. Contributions by: David Bushnell, German Carrera Damas, Simon Collier, Judith Ewell, Ivan Jaksic, Lester D. Langley, John V. Lombardi, Karen Racine, Frank Safford, and Hermes Tovar Pinzon

HIS STUDY OF GIROLAMO CARDANO is the T work of an amateur in the field of the history of science and the history of ideas. As a mathematical physi cist I lack the depth of training in philological-historical disciplines necessary to discuss the sources of Car dano's knowledge and trace the influences that shaped his views on science, medicine, and philosophy. What little recent literature on Cardano there is some times shows a lack of true understanding, or is primarily an appreciation of the mathematician. I relied, therefore, largely on his own writings, which are collected in the Opera Omnia. My excerpts and translations are taken di rectly from these works, and I hope that I have succeeded in capturing their essential meaning and spirit. MARKUS FIERZ Preface to the English Edition THANK the publisher Birkhauser Boston, Incorpo I rated, for the venture of this English edition of my essay on Cardano that originally appeared in the Poly Series published by Birkhauser Verlag, and for the care given to the translation. For this edition I have added two longer sections: one on Cardano's voyage to Scotland, and another on a rather interesting "mathematical theosophy" contained in his Liber de Proportionibus (Basel, 1570). Also included is a list of references quoted in the notes, and a record-as complete as possible-of the original editions of Cardano' s writings.

There is now a certain tradition of Anglo-German comparative research on new technology-based firms (NTBFs). Two of the most influential studies in this area have both been sponsored by the Anglo-German Foundation for the Study of In dustrial Society (AGF). Starting in 1977, the first AGF project on NTBFs, which was carried out by the consultancy firm Arthur D. Little, has been one ofthe most important early contributions in this field (Little 1977). This report was the first public document to use the term 'new technology-based firm' and to provide a definition, which despite its operational limitations subsequently became an es tablished term in the literature. More importantly, this study represented one ofthe first serious attempts to survey the existing stock of this type of firm. The report was critical of the contemporary situation in Europe. (This is a policy area which continues to be hotly debated, see European Commission 1995, Bank of England 1996 and HM Treasury 1998. ) It emphasised that, in comparison with the USA, Germany and the UK were each lagging behind if judged by the rate of formation of NTBFs and in their total contribution to the overall economic activity of both countries. In terms of a policy contribution, this study was instrumental in high lighting the lack ofsupport infrastructures for the genesis and growth of high-tech start-ups in two of Europe's leading economies."

von Markus Fierz Isaac Newton hat in seinem langen Leben zwei Biicher ver6ffentlicht: 1687 erschien "Philo- sophiae naturalis Principia mathematica", d. h. "Die mathematischen Grundlagen der Physik". Das Buch ist eine epochemachende Monographie der mathematischen Physik. 1704 hat Newton seine optischen Forschungsergebnisse zusammengefaBt und unter dem Titel "Opticks, or a Treatise of the Reflections, Refractions, Inflections and Colours of Light" herausgegeben. Dieses Buch ist ebenfalls epochemachend, aber es ist eine Monographie iiber Experimentalphysik. Die "Optik" umfaBt drei "Biicher", dessen erstes die Folgerungen aus Newtons Entdeckung von 1666 zieht, daB namlich das weiBe Licht aus Strahlen verschiedener Brechbarkeit besteht, die den Spektralfarben entsprechen. Newton hat seine Entdeckung am 6. Februar 1672 in einem l Briefe ) der Royal Society mitgeteiltl). Er wurde in den "Philosophical Transactions" (6, 1671/72 pg. 3075/87) abgedruckt. In der "Optik" ist die Darstellung viel ausfiihrlicher, vollstandiger und auch mehr systematisch. Diese Ausarbeitung entstand, wie Newton im Vorwort mitteilt, ca. 1687. Er hat sie also unmittelbar nach Vollendung seiner "Principia" geschrieben. Das zweite Buch behandelt Erscheinungen, die wir seit Thomas Young "Interferenzerscheinun- gen" nennen. Die beiden ersten Teile und der dritte bis einschlieBlich Prop. VIII sind ein fast unveranderter Abdruck der Abhandlung, die Newton am 7. Dezember 1675 an Oldenburg geschickt hat. Sie wurde an fiinf Sitzungen (Dezember - Februar) in der Royal Society vorgelesen und besprochen. Newton war dabei nicht anwesend; er war in Cambridge. Die Arbeit wurde damals nicht publiziert, aber die Royal Society hat sie "registriert", und das galt als "Publikation" .

Die freundliehe Aufnahme, welehe meine "K ii n s t 1 hen i e 0 r g ani s e hen FarbstoHe" gefunden haben, legte es nahe, dazu einen Naehtrag zu sehreiben, weil es aussiehtslos ersehien, heute ein Bueh vom Umfange des Hauptwerkes neu herauszugeben. Es hatte aueh wenig Sinn gehabt, in einer neuen Au lage das, was in allen Lehrbiiehern der Farbenehemie zu finden ist, noeh einmal zu sagen. Dagegen seMen es wiinsehenswert, die Fortsehritte der letzten 10 Jahre naher zu beleuehten. Es ist unmoglieh, in einem kurzen Naehtrage aIle Neuerungen, welehe bekannt geworden sind, zu erwahnen, um so mehr als die meisten davon keinerlei teehnisehe Bedeutung erlangt haben. Ieh habe mieh daher be miiht, das nerauszustellen, was mil' sowohl wissensehaftlieh als aueh teehniseh wiehtig erseheint, wobei ieh mil' del' durehaus subjektiven Aus wahl wohl bewuBt bin. Jedes Bueh solI einen personliehen Stempel tragen. Versehiedene Gruppen von Farbsto en habe ieh nul' nebenbei erwahnt, l weil in dem kiirzlieh ersehienenen Buche von Fritz Mayer ) (Kiinstliehe Organisehe Farbsto e) vieles vorausgenommen wurde. Ieh habeda, wo es mir notig ersehien, ausdriieklieh auf diese Arbeit verwiesen. Bei den Laekfarbsto en hatte ieh mieh del' Mitarbeit meines Kollegen Dr. Louis Blangey zu erfreuen, del' auf meine Veranlassung ein Kapitel iiber dieses, Gebiet sehrieb. Ieh sage ihm aueh an diesel' Stelle meinen besten Dank."

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