This book contains aseries of review papers related to the lectures given at the Third Course on Bioelectrochemistry held at Erice in November 1988, in the framework of the International School of Biophysics. The topics covered by this course, "Charge Separation Across Biomembranes, " deal with the electrochemical aspects of some basic phenomena in biological systems, such as transport of ions, ATP synthesis, formation and maintenance of ionic and protonic gradients. In the first part of the course some preliminary lectures introduce the students to the most basic phenomena and technical aspects of membrane bioelectrochemistry. The remaining part of the course is devoted to the description of a selected group of membrane-enzyme systems, capable of promoting, or exploiting, the processes of separation of electrically charged entities (electrons or ions) across the membrane barrier. These systems are systematically discussed both from a structural and functional point of view. The effort of the many distinguished lecturers who contributed to the course is aimed at offering a unifying treatement of the electrogenic systems operating in biological membranes, underlying the fundamental differences in the molecular mechanisms of charge translocation.

Bioelectrochemistry of Membranes is the last volume in the book series "Bioelectrochemistry: Principles and Practice" that provides a comprehensive compilation of physicochemical aspects of different biochemical and physiological processes. This sixth volume introduces basic knowledge and important electrochemical and biophysical aspects of membrane potentials, lipid bilayers and cell membranes.

The volumes of this book series serve as source books for advanced students and researchers at all levels of bioelectrochemistry.

by G. MILAZZO and M. BLANK This book contains the lectures of the fourth advanced course Bioelectrochemislry W Neroe-Muscle Function: Bioelectrochemistry, Mechanisms, Energetics and Contro~ which took place at the Majorana Center in Erice, Italy, October 20th to November 1, 1991. The scope of the course was international in terms of both sponsorship and partici pation. Sponsors included the Bioelectrochemical Society, NATO, International Union of Pure and Applied Biophysics (lUPAB), the World Federation of Scientists and the Italian National Research Council. One-third of the sixty participants were from Italy, but the majority came from eighteen other nations. Since the course was part of the International School of Biophysics, the biophysi cal point of view was emphasized in integrating the biology with the electrochemistry. Lecturers were asked to use a quantitative approach with accepted standards and proper units, since this is absolutely essential for developing an effective common language for communication across disciplines. Participants were also urged not to forget that biological systems could also be considered as physical systems. Ion channels are proteins and their properties as polyelectrolytes contribute to the specific biological properties. The existence of families of channels, with very similar structures but different selectivities, suggests that the specificities arise from slight variations of a general basic design. These perspectives on nerve-muscle function helped to make the school course a unique treatment of the subject.

Volume 1 of this Series is intended to give the reader a fundamental understanding of the key areas deemed essential to the study of bioelec trochemistry. A thorough grasp of the theory and methodology of these basic topics is vital to cope successfully with the complex phenomena that currently face investigators in most bioelectrochemical laboratories. Chapter 1 outlines the nonequilibrium thermodynamics and kinetics of the processes involved, stressing the connection between the two ap proaches. Particular emphasis is placed on the enzymes catalyzing cytosolic reactions and membrane transport. The techniques discussed are sufficient for the study of systems in the steady state, but systems that are evolving towards the steady state, or show some other time-depen dent behavior, require in addition the techniques of mathematical modelling. These are dealt with in some detail in Chapter 2, where network representation of the system is treated at length as the method of choice in carrying out appropriate simulations. In Chapter 3 attention is directed to the twin problems of water structure and ionic hydration."

Bioelectrochemistry: Principles and Practice provides a comprehensive compilation of all the physicochemical aspects of the different biochemical and physiological processes. Macromolecules, essentially nucleic acids, proteins and complex carbohydrates, are the building blocks of cell structure and function. This fifth volume in the "Bioelectrochemistry" series deals essentially with water-soluble biomacromolecules, since the properties of membrane-bound proteins are considered in other volumes of this series. The first chapter provides an extensive review of the structure, chemical reactivity and electromagnetic properties of nucleic acids. The following five chapters concentrate on proteins, their structure, folding and function, the electrochemistry of redox proteins and voltammetric methods. Special attention is devoted to the field of thiol/disulfide exchange as well as to one particular class of proteins, the iron-sulfur proteins. The last chapter considers the chemistry and properties of glycosaminoglycans, the complex charged polysaccharides of the cell surface and extracellular matrix. This series is intended as a set of source books for graduate and postgraduate students as well as research workers at all levels in bioelectrochemistry.

Bioenergetics, the topic of volume 5 of this Series, is concerned with the energetics, the kinetics, and the mechanisms of energy conversion in biological systems. This phenomenon can be investigated on diffe rent levels of complexity. On a global level the role of biological pro cesses for the steady state of our enviroment is considered. At the physiological level, the relation between energy input and the physiolo gical state of an organism is of interest, while at the cellular level the biochemical pathways for degradation and synthesis of all relevant substrates is investigated. At present the majority of bioenergetic stu dies pertain to the molecular level. The processes in a cell are cataly zed by a large number of proteins called enzymes. The enzymes in volved in energy transduction can be considered as molecular ma chines which transform energy from one form into another, or transfer energy from one process to another. Living systems operate far from equilibrium and are open in the ther modynamic sense, i. e. they exchange energy and matter with the sur roundings. Chapter 1 presents the principles of non equilibrium thermo dynamics applied to biological systems. About 0. 05% of the energy from the sunlight which reaches the surface of the earth is used by plants and algae as well as some bacteria to synthesize organic com pounds, and thus supplies all organisms with the energy necessary for life."

Bioelectrochemistry: Principles and Practice provides a comprehensive compilation of all the physicochemical aspects of the different biochemical and physiological processes. The role of electric and magnetic fields in biological systems forms the focus of this second volume in the Bioelectrochemistry series. The most prominent use of electric fields is found in some fish. These species generate fields of different strengths and patterns serving either as weapons, or for the purpose of location and communication. Electrical phenomena involved in signal transduction are discussed by means of two examples, namely excitation-contraction coupling in muscles and light transduction in photoreceptors. Also examined is the role of electrical potential differences in energy metabolism and its control. Temporal and spatial changes of the potential difference across the membranes of nerve cells are carefully evaluated, since they are the basis of the spreading and processing of information in the nervous system. The dielectric properties of cells and their responses to electric fields, such as electrophoresis and electrorotation, are dealt with in detail. Finally, the effects of magnetic fields on living systems and of low-frequency electromagnetic fields on cell metabolism are also considered. Further volumes will be added to the series, which is intended as a set of source books for graduate and postgraduate students as well as research workers at all levels in bioelectrochemistry.

Bioelectrochemistry of Membranes is the last volume in the book series "Bioelectrochemistry: Principles and Practice" that provides a comprehensive compilation of physicochemical aspects of different biochemical and physiological processes. This sixth volume introduces basic knowledge and important electrochemical and biophysical aspects of membrane potentials, lipid bilayers and cell membranes.

The volumes of this book series serve as source books for advanced students and researchers at all levels of bioelectrochemistry.

Bioelectrochemistry: Principles and Practice provides a comprehensive compilation of all the physicochemical aspects of the different biochemical and physiological processes. Macromolecules, essentially nucleic acids, proteins and complex carbohydrates, are the building blocks of cell structure and function. This fifth volume in the "Bioelectrochemistry" series deals essentially with water-soluble biomacromolecules, since the properties of membrane-bound proteins are considered in other volumes of this series. The first chapter provides an extensive review of the structure, chemical reactivity and electromagnetic properties of nucleic acids. The following five chapters concentrate on proteins, their structure, folding and function, the electrochemistry of redox proteins and voltammetric methods. Special attention is devoted to the field of thiol/disulfide exchange as well as to one particular class of proteins, the iron-sulfur proteins. The last chapter considers the chemistry and properties of glycosaminoglycans, the complex charged polysaccharides of the cell surface and extracellular matrix. This series is intended as a set of source books for graduate and postgraduate students as well as research workers at all levels in bioelectrochemistry.

This book contains aseries of review papers related to the lectures given at the Third Course on Bioelectrochemistry held at Erice in November 1988, in the framework of the International School of Biophysics. The topics covered by this course, "Charge Separation Across Biomembranes, " deal with the electrochemical aspects of some basic phenomena in biological systems, such as transport of ions, ATP synthesis, formation and maintenance of ionic and protonic gradients. In the first part of the course some preliminary lectures introduce the students to the most basic phenomena and technical aspects of membrane bioelectrochemistry. The remaining part of the course is devoted to the description of a selected group of membrane-enzyme systems, capable of promoting, or exploiting, the processes of separation of electrically charged entities (electrons or ions) across the membrane barrier. These systems are systematically discussed both from a structural and functional point of view. The effort of the many distinguished lecturers who contributed to the course is aimed at offering a unifying treatement of the electrogenic systems operating in biological membranes, underlying the fundamental differences in the molecular mechanisms of charge translocation.

Das vorliegende Buch hat den Zweck, die Grundlagen der Elektrochemie dem Leser in einer moeglichst einfachen und auch fur den Nichtspezialisten ver standlichen Form zu vermitteln. Es setzt daher nur ein Minimum an Vorkennt nissen in der Chemie und physikalischen Chemie voraus. Aus diesem Grunde eignet es sich als Lehrbuch, ist aber auch ein praktischer Ratgeber, da ich darin viele Zahlenangaben gesammelt und in'Tabellenform zusammengestellt habe, die in der Literatur verstreut und oft nicht leicht zuganglich sind. Es ist unmoeglich, in einem Band die gesamte Theorie und alle Anwendungen der Elektrochemie zusammenfassend darzustellen, ohne ihn zu einer allzu voluminoesen Abhandlung anwachsen zu lassen. Das vorliegende Buch entwickelt daher in erster Linie jenen Teil der Theorie, der zu speziell ist, um in einem Werk uber allgemeine physikalische Chemie Platz zu finden, und untersucht in zweiter Linie, wie die allgemeinen, aus dem Studium der physikalischen Chemie schon bekannten und in diesem Buch in der speziellen elektrochemischen Richtung weiter entwickelten Auffassungen uber chemische Umsetzungen auf die elektro chemischen Vorgange angewendet werden koennen. In meiner Darstellung habe ich immer getrachtet, nicht nur die zu unserem festen Besitzstand gehoerenden Ergebnisse, sondern auch die Schwierigkeiten und Unsicherheiten, die immer noch auf theoretischem und experimentellem Gebiete bestehen, hervorzuheben.