First published in 2002. This is Volume II of four of a series on Kant's and provides a commentary on the First Half of the Kritik Der Reinen Vernunftwith, Kant's Metaphysic of Experience (Vol II).

Originally published in 1968, and at a time when discontent with Westminster was growing along with the desire for an independent Scottish government, this book gives historical background but also discusses 20th Century political, administrative, legal and economic matters. Scottish law and taxation are discussed, as is education, industry, transport, migration and unemployment as part of the discussion to understand the growing movement of Scottish Nationalism.

Originally published in 1968, and at a time when discontent with Westminster was growing along with the desire for an independent Scottish government, this book gives historical background but also discusses 20th Century political, administrative, legal and economic matters. Scottish law and taxation are discussed, as is education, industry, transport, migration and unemployment as part of the discussion to understand the growing movement of Scottish Nationalism.

First published in 2002. This is Volume II of four of a series on Kant's and provides a commentary on the First Half of the Kritik Der Reinen Vernunftwith, Kant's Metaphysic of Experience (Vol II).

Considered one of the most profound, influential, and important works of philosophy, "Groundwork of the Metaphysic of Morals" introduces the famous Categorical Imperative and lays down a foundation for all of Immanuel Kant's writings. In it, Kant illuminates the basic concept that is central to his moral philosophy and, in fact, to the entire field of modern ethical thought: the Categorical Imperative, the supreme principle of morality, stating that all decisions should be made based on what is universally acceptable. Featuring the renowned translation and commentary of Oxford's H. J. Paton, this volume has long been considered the definitive English edition of Kant's classic text. "Kant's "Groundwork of the Metaphysic of Morals,"" Paton writes in his preface, "is one of the small books which is truly great: it has exercised on human thought an influence almost ludicrously disproportionate to its size."

KANTS METAPHYSIC OF EXPERIENCE A COMMENTARY ON THE FIRST HALF OF THE KRITIK DER REINEN VERNUNFT By H. J. PATOM, M. A., D. LiTT. OxoN Professor of Logic and Rhetoric in the I nnemlv of Gla mn, sonttinic Felloe of 7 fit Qucm Collet, nthe Innenity of 0 ford IN Two VOLUMES VOLUME TWO LONDON GEORGE ALLEN UNWIN LTD MUSEUM STREET FIRST PUBLISHED IN 1936 All rights reserved PRINTED IN GREAT BRITAIN BY UNWIN BROTHERS LID, WOKING CONTENTS VOLUME TWO BOOK VII THE SCHEMATISM OF THE CHAPTER XXXII XXXIII XXXIV CATEGORIES . 3. 4. 5. CATEGORY AND SCHEMA 1. A summary of Kants argument 17 2. Importance of the chapter on Schematism 20 The transcendental Doctrine of Judgement 21 Subsumption under the categories 24 The difficulty of subsumption under the categories 25 6. The transcendental schema 28 7. The restriction of the category through the schema 3 1 8. The schema in general 32 9. Special characteristics of the transcendental schema 37 10. Summary of conclusions 39 THE TRANSCENDENTAL SCHEMATA 1. Category and schema 42 2. The schema of quantity 44 3. The schema of quality 48 4 . The schemata of relation 52 5. The schemata of modality 56 6. Kants summary 60 7. The number of the schemata 63 THE SIGNIFICANCE OF THE SCHEMA i. Subsumption and syllogism 66 Category and schema 68 The transcendental synthesis of imagination 71 The schematism of the understanding 73 Value of Kants doctrine 75 6. The possibility of reconstruction 77 2. 3. 4. 5. CHAPTER XXXV CONTENTS BOOK VIII THE PRINCIPLES OF THE UNDERSTANDING PAGE THE SUPREME PRINCIPLE OF SYNTHETIC JUDGEMENTS 1. The nature of Kants argument 81 2. The principle of analytic judgements 83 3. Different kinds of synthetic judgement 84 4. The third thing 86 5. Thepossibility of experience 90 6. The principle of all synthetic judgements 94 XXXVI THE PRINCIPLES OF THE UNDER STANDING 1. Different kinds of principle 97 2. The Principles of the Understanding 98 3. Intuitive and discursive certainty 100 4. The proof of the Principles 103 5. Modern science and the Principles of the Understanding 106 BOOK IX THE MATHEMATICAL PRINCIPLES XXXVII THE AXIOMS OF INTUITION 1 . The Principle of the Axioms 1 1 1 2. The proof in the first edition 112 3. The proof in the second edition 1 14 4. Successiveness of synthesis 117 5. Intuition and object 119 6. The doctrine of the Aesthetic 12 1 7. The axioms of geometry 124 8. Quantitas and quantum 125 9. The formulae of arithmetic 129 10. The application of mathematics to objects of experience 131 CONTENTS 9 CHAPTER PAGE XXXVIII THE ANTICIPATIONS OF SENSE-PERCEP TION 1. The Principle of the Anticipations 134 2. The proof in the first edition 139 3. The proof in the second edition 141 4. Intensive quantity 144 5. The synthesis of quality 147 6. The causality of the object 150 7. The doctrine of continuity 152 8. Empty space and time 154 9. Kants conclusion 155 BOOK X THE ANALOGIES OF EXPERIENCE XXXIX THE PRINCIPLE OF THE ANALOGIES 1. The formulation of the Principle 159 2. The argument in the first edition 161 3. The modes of time 163 4. The argument in the second edition 167 5. The assumptions of the argument 170 6. The conclusion of the argument 173 7. The general character of the proof 175 XL THE SPECIAL CHARACTER OF THE ANALOGIES 1. The Analogies are regulative 178 2. The first meaning of Analogy 179 3. The second meaning of Analogy 180 XLI THE FIRST ANALOGY 1. The Principle of permanence 184 2. The argument of thefirst edition 186 3. The argument of the second edition 190 XLI I SUBSTANCE 1. In what sense is apprehension successive 192 2. The permanent and time-determination 195 3. The permanence of time 199 VOL. II A io CONTENTS CHAPTER PAGE XLII SUBSTANCE continued 4. Substratum and substance 201 5. Can substance be perceived 204. 6. The quantum of substance 207 7. Material substance 209 8. The conservation of matter 213 9. The empirical criterion of substance 215 10. The concept of change 217 1 1 . Science and experience 218 XLIII THE SECOND ANALOGY 1 ...

KANTS METAPHYSIC OF EXPERIENCE A COMMENTARY ON THE FIRST HALF OF THE KRITIK DER REINEN VERNUNFT By H. J. PATON, M. A., D. LITT. OXON Professor of Logic and Rhetoric in the University of Glasgow, sometime Fellow of The Queens College in the University of Oxford IN Two VOLUMES VOLUME ONE LONDON GEORGE ALLEN UNWIN LTD MUSEUM STREET FIRST PUBLISHED IN 1936 All rights PRINTED IN GREAT BRITAIN BY UNWIN BROTHERS LTD., WOKING IN MATRIS MEMORIAM The writings of the illustrious sage of Koenigsberg, the founder of the Critical Philosophy, more than any other work, at once in vigorated and disciplined my understanding. The originality, the depth, and the compression of the thoughts the novelty and subtlety, yet solidarity and importance of the distinctions the adamantine chain of the logic, and, I will venture to add paradox as it will appear to those who have taken their notion of Immanuel Kant from Reviewers and Frenchmen, the clearness and evidence of the Critique of Pure Reason . . . took possession of me with a giants hand COLERIDGE. PREFACE IT is a scandal to philosophical scholarship, and not least to German philosophical scholarship, that, more than a hundred and fifty years after the publication of the Kritik of Pure Reason, we still lack a commentary comparable with such works as that of Pacius on the Organon of Aristotle or even that of Adam on the Republic of Plato. Of all the authors who write about Kants greatest work there is none who condescends to explain it sentence by sentence Hans Vaihinger, who alone set out to do so, attempted to write a commentary, not only upon the Kritik y but upon all its previous commentators and, as was but natural, he gave up this impossible task whenhe had proceeded but a little way. In the absence of a detailed commentary we have an inevitable welter of con flicting opinions about Kants doctrines. More serious still, the unfortunate student and even, if I may judge from my own experience, many teachers of philosophy have the vaguest idea as to the meaning of Kants words. There are sentences in which the reader is unable to decide to which of several nouns the relative and demonstrative pronouns refer, or which of two nouns is to be regarded as subject and which as object. In vain do we look for a reliable guide even in these elementary matters and the plain fact is that most students find many passages, and too often crucial passages, to which they can attach no meaning at all. It is not surprising that they accept the opinions of others at second-hand without being able either to confirm or to criticise them. It is not my aim to write a commentary of the type required this is a task which should be reserved to a German writing for Germans. Nevertheless where the language is most difficult, and especially in such passages as the Transcendental Deduc i6 PREFACE tion and the argument of the Analogies, I have attempted to analyse Kants thought almost sentence by sentence and everywhere I have sought to give chapter and verse for my interpretations, so that the reader may be able to make an independent estimate of their truth. A method of this kind is not without its disadvantages. If difficulties are dealt with in detail, the explanation is bound itself to be difficult yet it must be remembered that a commen tary on the Kritik, by the very nature of its subject matter, cannot be light reading and its usefulness must depend on theextent to which it explains real difficulties, or at the very least explains where the real difficulties lie. Again, if this method is followed, Kants many expositions of the Trans cendental Deduction must impose a good deal of repetition on the commentator but there is no way of understanding the argument except by studying its details and any reader who believes he has mastered the details can confine his atten tion to Chapters XXX and XXXI, where I set out my general interpretation and criticisms...

This is a new release of the original 1948 edition.

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KANTS METAPHYSIC OF EXPERIENCE A COMMENTARY ON THE FIRST HALF OF THE KRITIK DER REINEN VERNUNFT By H. J. PATOM, M. A., D. LiTT. OxoN Professor of Logic and Rhetoric in the I nnemlv of Gla mn, sonttinic Felloe of 7 fit Qucm Collet, nthe Innenity of 0 ford IN Two VOLUMES VOLUME TWO LONDON GEORGE ALLEN UNWIN LTD MUSEUM STREET FIRST PUBLISHED IN 1936 All rights reserved PRINTED IN GREAT BRITAIN BY UNWIN BROTHERS LID, WOKING CONTENTS VOLUME TWO BOOK VII THE SCHEMATISM OF THE CHAPTER XXXII XXXIII XXXIV CATEGORIES . 3. 4. 5. CATEGORY AND SCHEMA 1. A summary of Kants argument 17 2. Importance of the chapter on Schematism 20 The transcendental Doctrine of Judgement 21 Subsumption under the categories 24 The difficulty of subsumption under the categories 25 6. The transcendental schema 28 7. The restriction of the category through the schema 3 1 8. The schema in general 32 9. Special characteristics of the transcendental schema 37 10. Summary of conclusions 39 THE TRANSCENDENTAL SCHEMATA 1. Category and schema 42 2. The schema of quantity 44 3. The schema of quality 48 4 . The schemata of relation 52 5. The schemata of modality 56 6. Kants summary 60 7. The number of the schemata 63 THE SIGNIFICANCE OF THE SCHEMA i. Subsumption and syllogism 66 Category and schema 68 The transcendental synthesis of imagination 71 The schematism of the understanding 73 Value of Kants doctrine 75 6. The possibility of reconstruction 77 2. 3. 4. 5. CHAPTER XXXV CONTENTS BOOK VIII THE PRINCIPLES OF THE UNDERSTANDING PAGE THE SUPREME PRINCIPLE OF SYNTHETIC JUDGEMENTS 1. The nature of Kants argument 81 2. The principle of analytic judgements 83 3. Different kinds of synthetic judgement 84 4. The third thing 86 5. Thepossibility of experience 90 6. The principle of all synthetic judgements 94 XXXVI THE PRINCIPLES OF THE UNDER STANDING 1. Different kinds of principle 97 2. The Principles of the Understanding 98 3. Intuitive and discursive certainty 100 4. The proof of the Principles 103 5. Modern science and the Principles of the Understanding 106 BOOK IX THE MATHEMATICAL PRINCIPLES XXXVII THE AXIOMS OF INTUITION 1 . The Principle of the Axioms 1 1 1 2. The proof in the first edition 112 3. The proof in the second edition 1 14 4. Successiveness of synthesis 117 5. Intuition and object 119 6. The doctrine of the Aesthetic 12 1 7. The axioms of geometry 124 8. Quantitas and quantum 125 9. The formulae of arithmetic 129 10. The application of mathematics to objects of experience 131 CONTENTS 9 CHAPTER PAGE XXXVIII THE ANTICIPATIONS OF SENSE-PERCEP TION 1. The Principle of the Anticipations 134 2. The proof in the first edition 139 3. The proof in the second edition 141 4. Intensive quantity 144 5. The synthesis of quality 147 6. The causality of the object 150 7. The doctrine of continuity 152 8. Empty space and time 154 9. Kants conclusion 155 BOOK X THE ANALOGIES OF EXPERIENCE XXXIX THE PRINCIPLE OF THE ANALOGIES 1. The formulation of the Principle 159 2. The argument in the first edition 161 3. The modes of time 163 4. The argument in the second edition 167 5. The assumptions of the argument 170 6. The conclusion of the argument 173 7. The general character of the proof 175 XL THE SPECIAL CHARACTER OF THE ANALOGIES 1. The Analogies are regulative 178 2. The first meaning of Analogy 179 3. The second meaning of Analogy 180 XLI THE FIRST ANALOGY 1. The Principle of permanence 184 2. The argument of thefirst edition 186 3. The argument of the second edition 190 XLI I SUBSTANCE 1. In what sense is apprehension successive 192 2. The permanent and time-determination 195 3. The permanence of time 199 VOL. II A io CONTENTS CHAPTER PAGE XLII SUBSTANCE continued 4. Substratum and substance 201 5. Can substance be perceived 204. 6. The quantum of substance 207 7. Material substance 209 8. The conservation of matter 213 9. The empirical criterion of substance 215 10. The concept of change 217 1 1 . Science and experience 218 XLIII THE SECOND ANALOGY 1 ...

KANTS METAPHYSIC OF EXPERIENCE A COMMENTARY ON THE FIRST HALF OF THE KRITIK DER REINEN VERNUNFT By H. J. PATOM, M. A., D. LiTT. OxoN Professor of Logic and Rhetoric in the I nnemlv of Gla mn, sonttinic Felloe of 7 fit Qucm Collet, nthe Innenity of 0 ford IN Two VOLUMES VOLUME TWO LONDON GEORGE ALLEN UNWIN LTD MUSEUM STREET FIRST PUBLISHED IN 1936 All rights reserved PRINTED IN GREAT BRITAIN BY UNWIN BROTHERS LID, WOKING CONTENTS VOLUME TWO BOOK VII THE SCHEMATISM OF THE CHAPTER XXXII XXXIII XXXIV CATEGORIES . 3. 4. 5. CATEGORY AND SCHEMA 1. A summary of Kants argument 17 2. Importance of the chapter on Schematism 20 The transcendental Doctrine of Judgement 21 Subsumption under the categories 24 The difficulty of subsumption under the categories 25 6. The transcendental schema 28 7. The restriction of the category through the schema 3 1 8. The schema in general 32 9. Special characteristics of the transcendental schema 37 10. Summary of conclusions 39 THE TRANSCENDENTAL SCHEMATA 1. Category and schema 42 2. The schema of quantity 44 3. The schema of quality 48 4 . The schemata of relation 52 5. The schemata of modality 56 6. Kants summary 60 7. The number of the schemata 63 THE SIGNIFICANCE OF THE SCHEMA i. Subsumption and syllogism 66 Category and schema 68 The transcendental synthesis of imagination 71 The schematism of the understanding 73 Value of Kants doctrine 75 6. The possibility of reconstruction 77 2. 3. 4. 5. CHAPTER XXXV CONTENTS BOOK VIII THE PRINCIPLES OF THE UNDERSTANDING PAGE THE SUPREME PRINCIPLE OF SYNTHETIC JUDGEMENTS 1. The nature of Kants argument 81 2. The principle of analytic judgements 83 3. Different kinds of synthetic judgement 84 4. The third thing 86 5. Thepossibility of experience 90 6. The principle of all synthetic judgements 94 XXXVI THE PRINCIPLES OF THE UNDER STANDING 1. Different kinds of principle 97 2. The Principles of the Understanding 98 3. Intuitive and discursive certainty 100 4. The proof of the Principles 103 5. Modern science and the Principles of the Understanding 106 BOOK IX THE MATHEMATICAL PRINCIPLES XXXVII THE AXIOMS OF INTUITION 1 . The Principle of the Axioms 1 1 1 2. The proof in the first edition 112 3. The proof in the second edition 1 14 4. Successiveness of synthesis 117 5. Intuition and object 119 6. The doctrine of the Aesthetic 12 1 7. The axioms of geometry 124 8. Quantitas and quantum 125 9. The formulae of arithmetic 129 10. The application of mathematics to objects of experience 131 CONTENTS 9 CHAPTER PAGE XXXVIII THE ANTICIPATIONS OF SENSE-PERCEP TION 1. The Principle of the Anticipations 134 2. The proof in the first edition 139 3. The proof in the second edition 141 4. Intensive quantity 144 5. The synthesis of quality 147 6. The causality of the object 150 7. The doctrine of continuity 152 8. Empty space and time 154 9. Kants conclusion 155 BOOK X THE ANALOGIES OF EXPERIENCE XXXIX THE PRINCIPLE OF THE ANALOGIES 1. The formulation of the Principle 159 2. The argument in the first edition 161 3. The modes of time 163 4. The argument in the second edition 167 5. The assumptions of the argument 170 6. The conclusion of the argument 173 7. The general character of the proof 175 XL THE SPECIAL CHARACTER OF THE ANALOGIES 1. The Analogies are regulative 178 2. The first meaning of Analogy 179 3. The second meaning of Analogy 180 XLI THE FIRST ANALOGY 1. The Principle of permanence 184 2. The argument of thefirst edition 186 3. The argument of the second edition 190 XLI I SUBSTANCE 1. In what sense is apprehension successive 192 2. The permanent and time-determination 195 3. The permanence of time 199 VOL. II A io CONTENTS CHAPTER PAGE XLII SUBSTANCE continued 4. Substratum and substance 201 5. Can substance be perceived 204. 6. The quantum of substance 207 7. Material substance 209 8. The conservation of matter 213 9. The empirical criterion of substance 215 10. The concept of change 217 1 1 . Science and experience 218 XLIII THE SECOND ANALOGY 1 ...

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""The great merit of Paton's book is that it sets aside altogether the conventional criticisms of Kant's ethics and calls upon the reader to study Kant's own statements.""--H. Barker, Mind ""A memorable volume, which comes as near a classical exposit