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The main focus of this book is on the interconnection of two
unorthodox scientific ideas, the varying-gravity hypothesis and the
expanding-earth hypothesis. As such, it provides a fascinating
insight into a nearly forgotten chapter in both the history of
cosmology and the history of the earth sciences. The hypothesis
that the force of gravity decreases over cosmic time was first
proposed by Paul Dirac in 1937. In this book the author examines in
detail the historical development of Dirac's hypothesis and its
consequences for the structure and history of the earth, the most
important of which was that the earth must have been smaller in the
past.
The story of superheavy elements - those at the very end of
the periodic table - is not well known outside the community
of heavy-ion physicists and nuclear chemists. But it is a most
interesting story which deserves to be known also to historians,
philosophers, and sociologists of science and indeed to the general
public. This is what the present work aims at. It tells the story
or rather parts of the story, of how physicists and chemists
created elements heavier than uranium or searched for them in
nature. And it does so with an emphasis on the frequent discovery
and naming disputes concerning the synthesis of very heavy
elements. Moreover, it calls attention to the criteria which
scientists have adopted for what it means to have discovered a new
element. In this branch of modern science it may be more
appropriate to speak of creation instead of discovery. The work
will be of interest to scientists as well as to scholars studying
modern science from a meta-perspective.
The main focus of this book is on the interconnection of two
unorthodox scientific ideas, the varying-gravity hypothesis and the
expanding-earth hypothesis. As such, it provides a fascinating
insight into a nearly forgotten chapter in both the history of
cosmology and the history of the earth sciences. The hypothesis
that the force of gravity decreases over cosmic time was first
proposed by Paul Dirac in 1937. In this book the author examines in
detail the historical development of Dirac's hypothesis and its
consequences for the structure and history of the earth, the most
important of which was that the earth must have been smaller in the
past.
In 1920s, a long-lasting controversy on the interpretation of
nuclear beta spectrum arose between Lise Meitner and Charles
Drummond Ellis. This controversy, and the reactions from the
contending parties when it was settled, reflect clearly the
difference between the scientific communities in Berlin and
Cambridge at that time. The Meitner-Ellis controversy ended in
1929, and it left an anomaly that attracted leading theoretical
physicists. A new dispute, this time between Niels Bohr and
Wolfgang Pauli, broke out. It concerned the explanation of the
continuity of the primary beta particles and dominated the
discussions for the next five years. Pauli argued for a new
particle, and Bohr for a new theory; both suggestions were radical
steps, but they reflected two different ways of doing physics.
To all four of us, Carsten was the best possible friend and
colleague. To Finn, he was a fellow student in the history of
science for several years at the Niels Bohr Institute; to Relge, he
was a welcome resource for personal and intellectual interac tion
in an otherwise less than fertile environment for the history of
science; Roger was Carsten's friend and advisor, not least in the
development of the dissertation on which the present book is based;
and as director of the Niels Bohr Archive, Erik was his main
advisor in his historical work. Because he was the person closest
to Carsten's work on his Ph. D. dissertation on the history of beta
decay, on which the present book is based, it is only fitting that
Erik stands as single author of the words in Carsten's memory at
the very beginning of this book. Before his untimely death shortly
after the completion of the Ph. D. disser tation, Carsten had
himself plans to develop the dissertation into a book. Being a true
perfectionist, he wanted to rework the manuscript substantively,
especially with regard to relating it to the broader discussion
among historians of science."
Niels Bohr’s atomic theory of 1913 is one of the absolute
highlights in the history of modern science. It was only with this
work that physicists realized that quantum theory is an essential
ingredient in atomic physics, and it was also only with this work
that Rutherford’s nuclear model dating from 1911 was transformed
into a proper theory of atomic structure. In a longer perspective,
Bohr’s quantum atom of 1913 gave rise to the later
Heisenberg-Schrödinger quantum mechanics and all its marvellous
consequences. This book is a detailed account of the origin of the
Bohr atom centred around his original scientific articles of 1913
which are here reproduced and provided with the necessary
historical background. In addition to the so-called trilogy – the
three papers published in Philosophical Magazine – also two other
and less well-known yet important papers are included. The present
work starts with a condensed biographical account of Bohr’s life
and scientific career, from his birth in Copenhagen in 1885 to his
death in the same city 77 years later. It then proceeds with a
chapter outlining earlier ideas of atomic structure and tracing
Bohr’s route from his doctoral dissertation in 1911 over his
stays in Cambridge and Manchester to the submission in April 1913
of the first part of the trilogy. The reproduction of Bohr’s five
articles is followed by notes and comments directly related to the
texts, with the aim of clarifying some of the textual passages and
to explicate names and subjects that may not be clear or well
known. The reception of Bohr’s radically new theory by
contemporary physicists and chemists is discussed in a final
chapter, which deals with the immediate reactions to Bohr's theory
1913-1915 mostly among British, German and American scientists.
Historians of science have long been occupied with Bohr’s atomic
theory, which was the subject of careful studies in connection with
its centenary in 2013. The present work offers an extensive
source-based account of the original theory aimed at a
non-specialist audience with an interest in the history of physics
and the origin of the quantum world. In 1922 Bohr was awarded the
Nobel Prize for his theory. The coming centenary will undoubtedly
cause an increased interest in how he arrived at his revolutionary
picture of the constitution of atoms and molecules.
Although Denmark, a small country on the European periphery, has
only made a modest contribution to decisive progress in scientific
research on the international arena, there have nevertheless been
numerous significant Danish contributions, and naturally this
present work describes these high points. While the high points are
represented by scientists like Tycho Brahe, H.C. Orsted and Niels
Bohr, this publication distances itself from prevailing heroic
presentations by putting weight on the dependence of these
scientists on a wide-ranging professional network, as well as close
contacts to private patrons, the state and other sponsors. Even
though splendid pinnacles are also to be found, the flat landscape
is perhaps more representative of Danish natural science history.
In Denmark, the natural sciences (as also applies to other
sciences, and culture in general) have developed mainly through the
reception of and adaptation to science from abroad.
Reception-history has therefore been given a prominent place in the
work. Institutions- and organisations-history is another area that
is given high priority, just as great weight has been laid on the
material, economic and cultural framework under which research has
always functioned. Although Danish natural science researchers have
nearly always emphasised the importance of international
cooperation, there are many national aspects of a social, political
and cultural type which have had significant influence on the
scientific practice in Denmark. The present work is documented in
such a way that it (also) makes sense to write the international
scientists history in a national context, and thereby placing the
work solidly in a new and fast-growing scientific-historic genre.
At the end of the nineteenth century, some physicists believed
that the basic principles underlying their subject were already
known, and that physics in the future would only consist of filling
in the details. They could hardly have been more wrong. The past
century has seen the rise of quantum mechanics, relativity,
cosmology, particle physics, and solid-state physics, among other
fields. These subjects have fundamentally changed our understanding
of space, time, and matter. They have also transformed daily life,
inspiring a technological revolution that has included the
development of radio, television, lasers, nuclear power, and
computers. In "Quantum Generations," Helge Kragh, one of the
world's leading historians of physics, presents a sweeping account
of these extraordinary achievements of the past one hundred
years.
The first comprehensive one-volume history of twentieth-century
physics, the book takes us from the discovery of X rays in the
mid-1890s to superstring theory in the 1990s. Unlike most previous
histories of physics, written either from a scientific perspective
or from a social and institutional perspective, "Quantum
Generations" combines both approaches. Kragh writes about pure
science with the expertise of a trained physicist, while keeping
the content accessible to nonspecialists and paying careful
attention to practical uses of science, ranging from compact disks
to bombs. As a historian, Kragh skillfully outlines the social and
economic contexts that have shaped the field in the twentieth
century. He writes, for example, about the impact of the two world
wars, the fate of physics under Hitler, Mussolini, and Stalin, the
role of military research, the emerging leadership of the United
States, and the backlash against science that began in the 1960s.
He also shows how the revolutionary discoveries of scientists
ranging from Einstein, Planck, and Bohr to Stephen Hawking have
been built on the great traditions of earlier centuries.
Combining a mastery of detail with a sure sense of the broad
contours of historical change, Kragh has written a fitting tribute
to the scientists who have played such a decisive role in the
making of the modern world.
For over three millennia, most people could understand the
universe only in terms of myth, religion, and philosophy. Between
1920 and 1970, cosmology transformed into a branch of physics. With
this remarkably rapid change came a theory that would finally lend
empirical support to many long-held beliefs about the origins and
development of the entire universe: the theory of the big bang. In
this book, Helge Kragh presents the development of scientific
cosmology for the first time as a historical event, one that
embroiled many famous scientists in a controversy over the very
notion of an evolving universe with a beginning in time. In rich
detail he examines how the big-bang theory drew inspiration from
and eventually triumphed over rival views, mainly the steady-state
theory and its concept of a stationary universe of infinite
age.
In the 1920s, Alexander Friedmann and Georges Lemaitre showed
that Einstein's general relativity equations possessed solutions
for a universe expanding in time. Kragh follows the story from
here, showing how the big-bang theory evolved, from Edwin Hubble's
observation that most galaxies are receding from us, to the
discovery of the cosmic microwave background radiation. Sir Fred
Hoyle proposed instead the steady-state theory, a model of dynamic
equilibrium involving the continuous creation of matter throughout
the universe. Although today it is generally accepted that the
universe started some ten billion years ago in a big bang, many
readers may not fully realize that this standard view owed much of
its formation to the steady-state theory. By exploring the
similarities and tensions between the theories, Kragh provides the
reader with indispensable background for understanding much of
today's commentary about our universe."
Consisting of separate cases organized by chapter and divided into
independent sections, this is no ordinary history of science book.
Between the Earth and the Heavens is an episodic history of modern
physical sciences covering the chronological development of
physics, chemistry and astronomy since about 1860. Integrating
historical authenticity and modern scientific knowledge, the cases
within deal with the often surprising connections between science
done in the laboratory (physics, chemistry) and science based on
observation (astronomy, cosmology).Between the Earth and the
Heavens presupposes an interest in and a certain knowledge of the
physical sciences, but it is written for non-specialists and
includes only a limited number of equations which are all clearly
explained in simple terms. For readers who wish to delve further,
the book is fully documented and ends with a bibliography of cited
quotations and other relevant sources.
Scientific and popular literature on modern cosmology is very
extensive; however, scholarly works on the historical development
of cosmology are few and scattered. The Oxford Handbook of the
History of Modern Cosmology offers a comprehensive and
authoritative account of the history of cosmology from the late
nineteenth century to the early twenty-first century. It provides
historical background to what we know about the universe today,
including not only the successes but also the many false starts.
Big Bang theory features prominently, but so does the defunct
steady state theory. The book starts with a chapter on the
pre-Einstein period (1860-1910) and ends with chapters on modern
developments such as inflation, dark energy and multiverse
hypotheses. The chapters are organized chronologically, with some
focusing on theory and others more on observations and
technological advances. A few of the chapters discuss more general
ideas, relating to larger contexts such as politics, economy,
philosophy and world views.
The reception of the periodic system of elements has received
little attention. Many historians have studied Mendeleev's
discovery of the periodic system, but few have analyzed how the
scientific community perceived and employed it. American historian
of science Stephen G. Brush concluded that the periodic law had
been generally accepted in the United States and Britain and
suggested the need to extend this study to other countries. Early
Responses to the Periodic System is the first collection of
comparative studies on the reception, response, and appropriation
of the periodic system of elements. This book examines the history
of pedagogy and popularization in scientific communities,
educational sectors, and popular culture from the 1870s to the
1920s. Fifteen historians of science explore eleven countries (and
one region) central to chemical research, including Russia,
Germany, the Czech lands, and Japan, one of the few nation-states
outside the Western world to participate in nineteenth century
scientific research. The collection, organized by nation-state,
explores how local actors regarded the new discovery as law,
classification, or theoretical interpretation. The section on
France discusses how a small but significant group of authors,
including Adolphe Wurtz and Edouard Grimaux, introduced the
periodic system as support for the atomic theory-not as the final
solution to the longstanding quest for a natural classification of
elements. The chapter on Germany discusses the role of Lothar
Meyer, also awarded The Davy Medal for the discovery of the
periodic system. Meyer's role was considered less important, and he
was forgotten in his home country, Germany where educational
tradition was well established, and the periodic system was not
used as a novel didactic approach. In addition to discussing the
appropriation of the periodic system, the collection examines
metaphysical reflections of nature based on the periodic system
outside of chemistry and considers how far we can push the
categories of "response " and "reception. "
Modern chemistry, so alarming, so necessary, so ubiquitous, became
a mature science in nineteenth-century Europe. As it developed,
often from a lowly position in medicine or in industry, so chemists
established themselves as professional men; but differently in
different countries. In 1820 chemistry was an autonomous science of
great prestige but chemists had no corporate identity. It was 1840
before national chemical societies were first formed; and many
countries lagged fifty years behind. Chemists are the largest of
scientific groups; and in this 1998 book we observe the social
history of chemistry in fifteen countries, ranging from the British
Isles to Lithuania and Greece. There are regularities and
similarities; and by describing how national chemical professions
emerged under particular economic and social circumstances, the
book contributes significantly to European history of science.
Modern chemistry, so alarming, so necessary, so ubiquitous, became
a mature science in nineteenth-century Europe. As it developed,
often from a lowly position in medicine or in industry, so chemists
established themselves as professional men; but differently in
different countries. In 1820 chemistry was an autonomous science of
great prestige but chemists had no corporate identity. It was 1840
before national chemical societies were first formed; and many
countries lagged fifty years behind. Chemists are the largest of
scientific groups; and in this 1998 book we observe the social
history of chemistry in fifteen countries, ranging from the British
Isles to Lithuania and Greece. There are regularities and
similarities; and by describing how national chemical professions
emerged under particular economic and social circumstances, the
book contributes significantly to European history of science.
This first full-length biography of Paul Adrien Maurice Dirac offers a comprehensive account of his physics in its historical context, including less known areas such as cosmology and classical electron theory. It is based extensively on unpublished sources, including Dirac's correspondence with Bohr, Heisenberg, Pauli, Schrödinger, Gamow and others. Dirac was undoubtedly one of the most brilliant and influential physicists of the twentieth century. Between 1925 and 1934, the Nobel Prize laureate revolutionized physics with his brilliant contributions to quantum theory. This work examines Dirac's successes and failures, and pays particular attention to his opposition to modern quantum electrodynamics; an opposition based on aesthetic objections.
Paul Adrien Maurice Dirac was undoubtedly one of the most brilliant
and influential physicists of the twentieth century. Between 1925
and 1934, this Nobel Laureate revolutionized physics with his
contributions to quantum theory. This book, the first full length
biography of Dirac, offers a comprehensive account of his life and
presents his physics in its historical context, including known
areas such as cosmology and classical electron theory. The author
examines Dirac's successes and failures, and pays particular
attention to Dirac's opposition to modern quantum electrodynamics -
an opposition based on aesthetic objections. This book, which draws
extensively from unpublished sources, including Dirac's
correspondence with Bohr, Heisenberg, Pauli, Schroedinger, Gamow,
and other physicists, is a history of modern physics as seen
through one scientist's career.
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