The Falungong movement originated in 1992 as a system of breathing exercises designed to promote health and well-being. Riding on the coattails of the qigong fever that swept through China, it attracted an extensive following until 1994, when the Chinese government suppressed the qigong movement. A series of protest rallies by Falungong organizations against local government repression set in motion an upward conflict spiral that culminated in the siege of the Party headquarters in Beijing on April 25, 1999, by more than 20,000 Falungong practitioners. Revenge of the Forbidden City begins with the shock of the Politburo against such insolent defiance, resolving to retaliate against the Falungong, a retaliation that represented "the most serious political incident" since the Tiananmen upheaval in 1989.
James W. Tong reveals how the Chinese government's relentless, sustained repression of the Falungong movement typifies its response towards perceived internal threats. Though many claim that the Democratic reforms in China have eroded the government's ability to monitor and control its citizens, the success of the campaign to eradicate Falungong indicates otherwise: the government effectively implemented a multifaceted offensive involving unsparing suppression, pervasive propaganda, and coercive conversion. The successful execution of this complex campaign reveals the resilience of China's authoritarian institutions. Using empirical evidence and thorough analysis, Tong reveals the Chinese state's formidable ability to crush dissent and provides a cogent rebuttal to those who claim that the Communist government is on the verge of collapse. The definitive account of China's response to Falungong, Revenge of the Forbidden City is essential for any scholar interested in how the Chinese state actually operates.

This scarce antiquarian book is a selection from Kessinger Publishing's Legacy Reprint Series. Due to its age, it may contain imperfections such as marks, notations, marginalia and flawed pages. Because we believe this work is culturally important, we have made it available as part of our commitment to protecting, preserving, and promoting the world's literature. Kessinger Publishing is the place to find hundreds of thousands of rare and hard-to-find books with something of interest for everyone

This scarce antiquarian book is a selection from Kessinger Publishing's Legacy Reprint Series. Due to its age, it may contain imperfections such as marks, notations, marginalia and flawed pages. Because we believe this work is culturally important, we have made it available as part of our commitment to protecting, preserving, and promoting the world's literature. Kessinger Publishing is the place to find hundreds of thousands of rare and hard-to-find books with something of interest for everyone

This scarce antiquarian book is a selection from Kessinger Publishing's Legacy Reprint Series. Due to its age, it may contain imperfections such as marks, notations, marginalia and flawed pages. Because we believe this work is culturally important, we have made it available as part of our commitment to protecting, preserving, and promoting the world's literature. Kessinger Publishing is the place to find hundreds of thousands of rare and hard-to-find books with something of interest for everyone

PREFACE IT is now many years since aWork on Coalwas presented to the public, and since that time knowledge of its natural history and appreciation increased. of its manifold uses have been Coal is indispensable to all civilised nations it is not surprising therefore that the origin, position and extent of the seams have exercised the best thought and enquiry of geologists and prospectors that its discovery and working have stimulated the skill and demanded the best energies of engineers, and the heroism and labours of innumerable miners that its economical utilisation and application have been obtained in spite of years of necessary labour and research on the part of learned men in many branches of science. This book, though dealing only with the first and last of the aspects of the subject thus suggested, should be interest- ing and instructive not only to students of various sciences, but to the whole of those people who, though proud of the high commercial position of this country, are unaware as to how greatly this is due to our Coal supplies. As a rule descriptions of mining practice avoided, though a few subjects with in the authors Principles, have been here included are dealt and Practice of Coal Mining, . The latter book is intended particularly for students the present work is of course written for a different public. Some of the friends to whom I am indebted for advice and assistance and to whom thanks are now tendered are Mr. Bennett Brough, F.G.S., Mr. John Gerrard, H.M. Inspector of Mines, Mr. James Lomax, Petrologist, and Mr. Herbert Bolton, F.K.S.E. WESTHOUGHTON, October, 1907 JAMES TONGE. CONTENTS CHAP. PAGE I. HISTORY........ 1 II. OCCURRENCE ....... 6 III. MODE OFFORMATION OF COAL SEAMS . . 16 IV. FOSSILS OF THE COAL MEASURES ... 21 V. BOTANY OF THE COAL-MEASURE PLANTS . . 46 VI. COALFIELDS OF THE BRITISH ISLES ... 84 VII. FOREIGN COALFIELDS . . . . .101 VIII. THE CLASSIFICATION OF COALS . . . .124 X. FOREIGN COALS AND THEIR VALUES . . . 154 167 IX. THE VALUATION OF COAL 140 XI. USES OF COAL....... XII. THE PRODUCTION OF HEAT FROM COAL . .178 XIII. WASTE OF COAL 205 XIV. THE PREPARATION OF COAL FOR THE MARKET . 210 XV. COALING STATIONS OF THE WORLD . 255 INDEX 263 COAL What COAL. CHAPTEK I. HISTORY. romance surrounds the word Consider the strange natural history the wonderful provision in an early geological age of the vast supplies for the future use of a higher type of animal than existed at the time the skill and ingenuity of the engineer in finding the deeply- hidden beds and extracting them from their long resting place, and this in the face of such obstacles as water, fire, and noxious gas the labour of thousands of men and boys in a subterranean world, and the toll of lives annually sacrificed therein the innumerable purposes for which it is required, whereby human life on this earth may be made enjoyable, it might almost be said, possible. In those remote ages of the early history of man, before the periods of metal began, there was little use for coal, so that, whether it was visible or not in the river beds or hill sides, man had probably not investigated its properties. But when the great discovery was made that certain sub- stances could be melted by heat and moulded into various shapes and patterns the hill sides were robbed of the black B c. 2 COAL. substance which could produce the fire necessary for smelting purposes. And so, although pre-historic man had little use for this combustible, and obtained his supplies of fuel from the forests in or near which he lived, there were possibly some miners who smelted and worked the metals, and some smiths who made and tempered arms...

PREFACE IT is now many years since aWork on Coalwas presented to the public, and since that time knowledge of its natural history and appreciation increased. of its manifold uses have been Coal is indispensable to all civilised nations it is not surprising therefore that the origin, position and extent of the seams have exercised the best thought and enquiry of geologists and prospectors that its discovery and working have stimulated the skill and demanded the best energies of engineers, and the heroism and labours of innumerable miners that its economical utilisation and application have been obtained in spite of years of necessary labour and research on the part of learned men in many branches of science. This book, though dealing only with the first and last of the aspects of the subject thus suggested, should be interest- ing and instructive not only to students of various sciences, but to the whole of those people who, though proud of the high commercial position of this country, are unaware as to how greatly this is due to our Coal supplies. As a rule descriptions of mining practice avoided, though a few subjects with in the authors Principles, have been here included are dealt and Practice of Coal Mining, . The latter book is intended particularly for students the present work is of course written for a different public. Some of the friends to whom I am indebted for advice and assistance and to whom thanks are now tendered are Mr. Bennett Brough, F.G.S., Mr. John Gerrard, H.M. Inspector of Mines, Mr. James Lomax, Petrologist, and Mr. Herbert Bolton, F.K.S.E. WESTHOUGHTON, October, 1907 JAMES TONGE. CONTENTS CHAP. PAGE I. HISTORY........ 1 II. OCCURRENCE ....... 6 III. MODE OFFORMATION OF COAL SEAMS . . 16 IV. FOSSILS OF THE COAL MEASURES ... 21 V. BOTANY OF THE COAL-MEASURE PLANTS . . 46 VI. COALFIELDS OF THE BRITISH ISLES ... 84 VII. FOREIGN COALFIELDS . . . . .101 VIII. THE CLASSIFICATION OF COALS . . . .124 X. FOREIGN COALS AND THEIR VALUES . . . 154 167 IX. THE VALUATION OF COAL 140 XI. USES OF COAL....... XII. THE PRODUCTION OF HEAT FROM COAL . .178 XIII. WASTE OF COAL 205 XIV. THE PREPARATION OF COAL FOR THE MARKET . 210 XV. COALING STATIONS OF THE WORLD . 255 INDEX 263 COAL What COAL. CHAPTEK I. HISTORY. romance surrounds the word Consider the strange natural history the wonderful provision in an early geological age of the vast supplies for the future use of a higher type of animal than existed at the time the skill and ingenuity of the engineer in finding the deeply- hidden beds and extracting them from their long resting place, and this in the face of such obstacles as water, fire, and noxious gas the labour of thousands of men and boys in a subterranean world, and the toll of lives annually sacrificed therein the innumerable purposes for which it is required, whereby human life on this earth may be made enjoyable, it might almost be said, possible. In those remote ages of the early history of man, before the periods of metal began, there was little use for coal, so that, whether it was visible or not in the river beds or hill sides, man had probably not investigated its properties. But when the great discovery was made that certain sub- stances could be melted by heat and moulded into various shapes and patterns the hill sides were robbed of the black B c. 2 COAL. substance which could produce the fire necessary for smelting purposes. And so, although pre-historic man had little use for this combustible, and obtained his supplies of fuel from the forests in or near which he lived, there were possibly some miners who smelted and worked the metals, and some smiths who made and tempered arms...

Virtually every analysis of Chinese politics views the Politburo as the nerve center of the system, but questions abound as to how this center governs itself and how it interacts with the system around it. Specifically, how much consultation occurs during the drafting of major Politburo documents, and who is brought into this process? How is information channeled up to this body, and what are the rules that govern the access of the Politburo members themselves to data generated by the bureaucracies? How are the political strategies of individual leaders and political factions attuned to this system of information channeling? What types of decisions are reached by the Politburo? To whom are they communicated? How rigidly must they be followed? How institutionalized is this entire decision making system, and has it become more-or less-institutionalized over the years? How has the factional legacy of the Cultural Revolution affected its mode of operations? Indeed, in the wake of the Cultural Revolution, how much in control of the system has the Politburo itself been?Central Documents in Politburo Politics in China seeks to better understand these questions by analyzing a particular stream of largely bureaucratic communications in the Chinese system: the so-called "Central Documents" (CDs). This is a series of documents through which the top Party leadership directly communicates with the rest of the political system. [1]