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Many transnational campaigns, and particularly the transnational
campaign on violence against women, promote international norms
that target the behavior of local non-state actors, while many of
these local actors are subscribing to conflicting local norms. What
happens when the international and local norms collide? When does
transnational activism lead individuals and communities to abandon
local norms and embrace international ones? In When Norms Collide,
Karisa Cloward presents a theoretical framework for understanding
the range of local-level responses to international norm promotion,
and applies this framework to the issues of female genital
mutilation (FGM) and early marriage. Cloward argues that,
conditional on exposure to an international normative message,
individuals can decide to change their attitudes, their actual
behavior, and the public image they present to international and
local audiences. She finds that the impact of transnational
activism on individual decision-making substantially depends on the
salience of the international and local norms to their respective
proponents, as well as on community-level factors such as the
density of NGO activity and the availability of an exit option from
the local norm. She further finds that there are both social and
temporal dimensions to the diffusion of international norms across
individuals and through communities. Cloward evaluates the theory
by examining changes in the patterns of FGM and early marriage
among the Maasai and Samburu in Kenya, using a mixed-method
empirical strategy that includes qualitative interviews and an
original representative survey with a randomized experimental
component.
Essays that generate a new, empirically grounded theory of
transnational advocacy Margaret E. Keck and Kathryn Sikkink
introduced the boomerang theory in their 1998 book, Activists
beyond Borders: Advocacy Networks in International Politics. It
remains one of the first broadly applicable theories for why groups
of NGOs and interested individuals form transnational advocacy
networks. Since its publication, however, the empirical conditions
that prompted their theory have changed. The types of actors
involved in transnational advocacy have diversified. Northern NGOs
have lost power and influence and have been restricted in their
access to southern states. Southern NGOs have developed the
capacity to undertake advocacy on their own and often built closer
relationships with their own governments. The architecture of
global governance has likewise changed, providing new avenues of
access and influence for southern voices. In Beyond the Boomerang:
From Transnational Advocacy Networks to Transcalar Advocacy in
International Politics, editors Christopher L. Pallas and Elizabeth
A. Bloodgood offer cutting-edge scholarship that synthesizes a new
theoretical framework to develop a coherent, integrated picture of
the current dynamics in global advocacy. This new theory of
transcalar advocacy focuses on advocacy activities and policy
impacts that transcend different levels or scales of political
action. In transcalar advocacy, all NGOs-northern and southern-are
treated as strategic actors, choosing the targets, scales of
advocacy, and partnerships that best suit their capacities and
goals. The case studies in the volume develop the empirical
grounding of this theory using data from Latin America, Africa,
Europe, and Asia, with several chapters featuring cross-national
comparison. The chapters highlight the wide variety of actors
involved in advocacy work, including NGOs, social movements,
international institutions, governments, and businesses.
Contributors use both qualitative and quantitative methodologies
and bring to bear insights from political science, international
relations, and sociology. The case studies also include diverse
issue areas, from women's rights to environmental protection,
sustainable agriculture, health policy, and democracy promotion.
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