This book explores the role of singularities in general relativity (GR): The theory predicts that when a sufficient large mass collapses, no known force is able to stop it until all mass is concentrated at a point. The question arises, whether an acceptable physical theory should have a singularity, not even a coordinate singularity. The appearance of a singularity shows the limitations of the theory. In GR this limitation is the strong gravitational force acting near and at a super-massive concentration of a central mass. First, a historical overview is given, on former attempts to extend GR (which includes Einstein himself), all with distinct motivations. It will be shown that the only possible algebraic extension is to introduce pseudo-complex (pc) coordinates, otherwise for weak gravitational fields non-physical ghost solutions appear. Thus, the need to use pc-variables. We will see, that the theory contains a minimal length, with important consequences. After that, the pc-GR is formulated and compared to the former attempts. A new variational principle is introduced, which requires in the Einstein equations an additional contribution. Alternatively, the standard variational principle can be applied, but one has to introduce a constraint with the same former results. The additional contribution will be associated to vacuum fluctuation, whose dependence on the radial distance can be approximately obtained, using semi-classical Quantum Mechanics. The main point is that pc-GR predicts that mass not only curves the space but also changes the vacuum structure of the space itself. In the following chapters, the minimal length will be set to zero, due to its smallness. Nevertheless, the pc-GR will keep a remnant of the pc-description, namely that the appearance of a term, which we may call "dark energy", is inevitable. The first application will be discussed in chapter 3, namely solutions of central mass distributions. For a non-rotating massive object it is the pc-Schwarzschild solution, for a rotating massive object the pc-Kerr solution and for a charged massive object it will be the Reissner-Nordstroem solution. This chapter serves to become familiar on how to resolve problems in pc-GR and on how to interpret the results. One of the main consequences is, that we can eliminate the event horizon and thus there will be no black holes. The huge massive objects in the center of nearly any galaxy and the so-called galactic black holes are within pc-GR still there, but with the absence of an event horizon! Chapter 4 gives another application of the theory, namely the Robertson-Walker solution, which we use to model different outcomes of the evolution of the universe. Finally the capability of this theory to predict new phenomena is illustrated.

This book explores the role of singularities in general relativity (GR): The theory predicts that when a sufficient large mass collapses, no known force is able to stop it until all mass is concentrated at a point. The question arises, whether an acceptable physical theory should have a singularity, not even a coordinate singularity. The appearance of a singularity shows the limitations of the theory. In GR this limitation is the strong gravitational force acting near and at a super-massive concentration of a central mass. First, a historical overview is given, on former attempts to extend GR (which includes Einstein himself), all with distinct motivations. It will be shown that the only possible algebraic extension is to introduce pseudo-complex (pc) coordinates, otherwise for weak gravitational fields non-physical ghost solutions appear. Thus, the need to use pc-variables. We will see, that the theory contains a minimal length, with important consequences. After that, the pc-GR is formulated and compared to the former attempts. A new variational principle is introduced, which requires in the Einstein equations an additional contribution. Alternatively, the standard variational principle can be applied, but one has to introduce a constraint with the same former results. The additional contribution will be associated to vacuum fluctuation, whose dependence on the radial distance can be approximately obtained, using semi-classical Quantum Mechanics. The main point is that pc-GR predicts that mass not only curves the space but also changes the vacuum structure of the space itself. In the following chapters, the minimal length will be set to zero, due to its smallness. Nevertheless, the pc-GR will keep a remnant of the pc-description, namely that the appearance of a term, which we may call "dark energy", is inevitable. The first application will be discussed in chapter 3, namely solutions of central mass distributions. For a non-rotating massive object it is the pc-Schwarzschild solution, for a rotating massive object the pc-Kerr solution and for a charged massive object it will be the Reissner-Nordstroem solution. This chapter serves to become familiar on how to resolve problems in pc-GR and on how to interpret the results. One of the main consequences is, that we can eliminate the event horizon and thus there will be no black holes. The huge massive objects in the center of nearly any galaxy and the so-called galactic black holes are within pc-GR still there, but with the absence of an event horizon! Chapter 4 gives another application of the theory, namely the Robertson-Walker solution, which we use to model different outcomes of the evolution of the universe. Finally the capability of this theory to predict new phenomena is illustrated.

Die Entstehungsgeschichte dieses Bandes reicht weit zuriick. Schon wahrend der Arbeit an dem Cytoplasma-Teil des Handbuches in den friihen fiinfziger J ahren war unter Leitung von F. HfrCHNER ein Konzept fUr die Darstellung des Zellkernes entworfen worden, das zunachst auch ziigig ausgefiillt wurde. Indessen, mit dem Beginn der neuen, vor allem von Elektronenmikroskopie und Cytobiochemie getragenen Ara der Karyologie geriet die weitere E?-twicklung ins Stocken. Jeder Versuch, die Flut der neuen Erkenntnisse durch Anderungen oder Erganzungen des bereits Formulierten einzufangen, lief3 nur ein unerfreuliches und unhaltbares Flickwerk zuriick. Es blieb also keine andere Wahl, als auf alles bereits Fixierte zu verzichten. Einem neuen Beginn standen aber fiirs erste uniiberwindliche Schwierigkeiten entgegen: Die neuen Befunde iiberstiirzten sich und erschiitterten scheinbar festgefiigte Thesen, vermochten zunachst jedoch nur spezielle, aber keine allgemeingiiltigen Gesetzmaf3igkeiten zu vermitteln. Man muf3te also abwarten, bis eine gewisse Beruhigung der Situation eingetreten war, bis sich neue Ordnungs prinzipien abzeichneten, Verbindungsglieder zu friiheren, vielfach vergessenen Befunden sichtbar wurden und eine Zusammenschau alter und neuer Daten moglich erschien. Allerdings bedurfte es jetzt, im Ganzen und in Teilen, eines vollig F. BUCHNER, neuen Entwurfes, der wiederum dem ersten Betreuer dieses Bandes, zu danken ist, und dessen Realisation mit dem hier vorliegenden Abschnitt beginnt. Mit der detaillierten Darstellung der Chromosomen solI die Grundlage fiir das Verstandnis von Kernstruktur und Kernfunktion geliefert werden."

This title is part of UC Press's Voices Revived program, which commemorates University of California Press's mission to seek out and cultivate the brightest minds and give them voice, reach, and impact. Drawing on a backlist dating to 1893, Voices Revived makes high-quality, peer-reviewed scholarship accessible once again using print-on-demand technology. This title was originally published in 1953.

This title is part of UC Press's Voices Revived program, which commemorates University of California Press's mission to seek out and cultivate the brightest minds and give them voice, reach, and impact. Drawing on a backlist dating to 1893, Voices Revived makes high-quality, peer-reviewed scholarship accessible once again using print-on-demand technology. This title was originally published in 1953.