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1. Main assumptions, objectives and conditionings 1.1. The present
book is concerned with certain problems in the logical philosophy
of language . It is written in the the Polish logical,
philosophical, and semiotic spirit of syntax of tradition, and
shows two conceptions of the categorial languages : the theory of
simple languages, i.e ., languages which do not include variables
nor the operators that bind them (for instance, large fragments of
natural languages, calculi, the language of languages of well-known
sentential Aristotle's traditional syllogistic, languages of
equationally definable algebras), and the theory of w-languages,
i.e., languages which include operators and variables bound by the
latter
No discipline has been more praised or more criticized than the
writing of history. Cioero claimed that history teaches men how to
live. Aris totle denied it the very name of science and regwded
poetry as the higher wisdom. At various times history has been
assigned a command ing or a demeaning statIUs in the hierarchy of
sciences. Today one can admire the increasing precision and
sophistication of the methods used by historia: ns. On the other
hand, Thucydides' History of the PeZo ponesian War still serves as
the ideal model of how to reconstruct the historical past. Even
those who deny the possibility of an objective reconstruction of
the past would themselves likie to be recorded by historians,
"objectively" or not. Dislike of history and fear of its verdict
are not incompatible with reverence and awe for its practitioners,
the historians. So man's attitude to history is ambiguous. The
controversy about history continues. Widely differing issues are at
stake. Historians themselves, however, are the least engaged in the
struggle. Rarely does a historian decide to open the door of his
study and join in the melee about the meaning of history. More
often he slams it shut and returns to his studies, oblivious of the
fact that with the passage of thne the gap between his scientific
work and its audience might widen. The historian does not shun the
battle, he merely chooses his own battleground."
In the Introduction to the Polish-language version of the present
book I expressed the hope that Polish studies in semiotics would
before long be numerous enough to make possible another anthology
on semiotics in Poland containing material published since 1970.
That hope has in fact come true. The fact that semiotic research
has been gaining momentum in this country is reflected in the
growing interest in the discipline, in expanding international
contacts, and in the steady increase in the number of publications.
Thus, 1972 saw the setting up of the Department of Logical
Semiotics, headed by the present writer, at Warsaw University
Institute of Phi losophy. The seminar on semiotics, which I started
in 1961, had met more than two hundred times by the end of 1976;
since 1968, meetings have been held jointly with the Polish
Semiotic Society. Another semi nar, confined to university staff
and concerned with logical semiotics, which was inithted in 1970,
had met more than fifty times by the end of 1976. The former
seminar often plays host to foreign visiting pro fessors; so far
scholars from Australia, Belgium, Britain, Canada, Czechoslovakia,
France, the German Democratic Republic, Italy, the Netherlands, the
Soviet Union, and the United States have attended."
Recent years have seen the appearance of many English-language hand
books of logic and numerous monographs on topical discoveries in
the foundations of mathematics. These publications on the
foundations of mathematics as a whole are rather difficult for the
beginners or refer the reader to other handbooks and various
piecemeal contribu tions and also sometimes to largely conceived
"mathematical fol klore" of unpublished results. As distinct from
these, the present book is as easy as possible systematic
exposition of the now classical results in the foundations of
mathematics. Hence the book may be useful especially for those
readers who want to have all the proofs carried out in full and all
the concepts explained in detail. In this sense the book is
self-contained. The reader's ability to guess is not assumed, and
the author's ambition was to reduce the use of such words as
evident and obvious in proofs to a minimum. This is why the book,
it is believed, may be helpful in teaching or learning the
foundation of mathematics in those situations in which the student
cannot refer to a parallel lecture on the subject. This is also the
reason that I do not insert in the book the last results and the
most modem and fashionable approaches to the subject, which does
not enrich the essential knowledge in founda tions but can
discourage the beginner by their abstract form. A. G."
When asked in 1962 on what he was working Kazimierz Ajdukiewicz
replied: Several years ago Polish Scientific Publishers suggested
that I pre pare a new edition of The Logical Foundations of
Teaching, which I wrote 1 before 1939 as a contribution to The
Encyclopaedia of Education. It was a small booklet covering
elementary information about logical semantics and scientific
methodology, information which in my opinion was necessary as a
foundation of teaching and as an element of the education of any
teacher. When I recently set to preparing the new edition, I
rewrote practically everything, and a booklet of some 100 pages
swelled into a bulky volume almost five times bigger. The issues
have remained practically the same, but they are now analysed much
more thoroughly and the threshold of difficulty is much higher now.
The main stress has been laid on the methods used in the empirical
sciences, and within that field, on the theory of measurement and
the methods of statistical inference. I am now working on the last
chapter of the book, concerned with explanation procedures and
theory construction in the empirical sciences. When that book,
which I intend to entitle Pragmatic Logic, is com pleted I intend
to prepare for the press Vol. 2 of my minor writings, 2 Language
and Cognition, which will cover some of my post-war pa pers."
No discipline has been more praised or more criticized than the
writing of history. Cioero claimed that history teaches men how to
live. Aris totle denied it the very name of science and regwded
poetry as the higher wisdom. At various times history has been
assigned a command ing or a demeaning statIUs in the hierarchy of
sciences. Today one can admire the increasing precision and
sophistication of the methods used by historia:ns. On the other
hand, Thucydides' History of the PeZo ponesian War still serves as
the ideal model of how to reconstruct the historical past. Even
those who deny the possibility of an objective reconstruction of
the past would themselves likie to be recorded by historians,
"objectively" or not. Dislike of history and fear of its verdict
are not incompatible with reverence and awe for its practitioners,
the historians. So man's attitude to history is ambiguous. The
controversy about history continues. Widely differing issues are at
stake. Historians themselves, however, are the least engaged in the
struggle. Rarely does a historian decide to open the door of his
study and join in the melee about the meaning of history. More
often he slams it shut and returns to his studies, oblivious of the
fact that with the passage of thne the gap between his scientific
work and its audience might widen. The historian does not shun the
battle, he merely chooses his own battleground.
When asked in 1962 on what he was working Kazimierz Ajdukiewicz
replied: Several years ago Polish Scientific Publishers suggested
that I pre pare a new edition of The Logical Foundations of
Teaching, which I wrote 1 before 1939 as a contribution to The
Encyclopaedia of Education. It was a small booklet covering
elementary information about logical semantics and scientific
methodology, information which in my opinion was necessary as a
foundation of teaching and as an element of the education of any
teacher. When I recently set to preparing the new edition, I
rewrote practically everything, and a booklet of some 100 pages
swelled into a bulky volume almost five times bigger. The issues
have remained practically the same, but they are now analysed much
more thoroughly and the threshold of difficulty is much higher now.
The main stress has been laid on the methods used in the empirical
sciences, and within that field, on the theory of measurement and
the methods of statistical inference. I am now working on the last
chapter of the book, concerned with explanation procedures and
theory construction in the empirical sciences. When that book,
which I intend to entitle Pragmatic Logic, is com pleted I intend
to prepare for the press Vol. 2 of my minor writings, 2 Language
and Cognition, which will cover some of my post-war pa pers."
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