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Can religions supply an ethics that can unite rather than divide
peoples? In ancient times, many people believed in super-human
powers spatially beyond them, whether above or below them. They
conceived of them in anthropomorphic terms, and developed symbols,
rituals, and general ways of life to court their favor because they
felt dependent upon these powers for certain essentials of daily
living such as warmth, water, or good health. Some deities were
believed to have personally intervened in human history, and took a
human form to fight their enemies, provided humans with rules for
living, or re-created the world after its destruction. As time
passed, these claims became more comprehensive, finally universal,
even Absolute, even as the process of questioning the claims, which
is called "desacralization," became more widespread. Many sensed
that if their absolutized deity were dislodged by doubt, the world
would flounder without an ethic. Some religions tried to defend
their deity by emphasizing that it was really beyond any
"attributes," beyond human reason. It became the Ineffable, the
Incommensurable, even the "Wholly-Other." If it was thought to have
become Incarnate, that had to be defended in a similar way. In
order to solve the problem of the Absolute, W. Royce Clark analyzes
the thought of four prominent Christian theologians and
philosophers- Friedrich Schleiermacher, G.W.F. Hegel, Paul Tillich,
and Robert P. Scharlemann-as the grounds for the basis of a
possible universal ethic.
The American justice system was founded on the idea of
"majority-rule," but in a democracy this is achievable only if the
majority has the interests of the whole at heart. Since the days of
America's founding, white, Christian males created laws from their
standpoint as the majority, leading them to exercise power in a
largely "majoritarian" way rather than upholding the interests of
all citizens. The nation has not realized its stated ideals of
equality of liberty, opportunity and justice for all. As a
solution, W. Royce Clark formulates a non-majoritarian ethic based
not on any majority but on a universal instinct, the combination of
Albert Schweitzer's "will-to-live" and Friedrich Nietzsche's
"will-to-power," along with democratic principles articulated by
John Rawls and James Madison, which would represent all citizens.
The proximity of many different religions, each with its own unique
metaphysics and ethics, did not exist in the ancient world when
those religions came into existence. Many went uncontested for
centuries, and many merged with governments to shape the laws for
the entire people of a culture or nation. Theocracies can exist
only where there is no plurality of religions or where the minor
religions do not mind the dominant one dictating policy for all
citizens. In the word's two greatest democracies, the U.S. and
India, despite the diversity that a democratic society presupposes,
a majoritarian religion continues to assert an advantage over
others to shape the social contract. An Ethic of Trust: Mutual
Autonomy and the Common Will-to-Live addresses this problem, moving
beyond sheer utilitarianism. W. Royce Clark argues that because of
religious pluralism, a nation's ethic must be grounded on
"freestanding" principles. This means that its base must be
universally obvious, and its principles must be agreeable to all
citizens. The base is instinctual, the "will-to-live" which is
present in all living creatures, and the recognition of that can
influence people to agree to a voluntary unity and a couple of
other basic principles to which all would agree, principles which
embrace differences within relationships, whether in a marriage or
a constitutional republic. But to voluntarily agree to these
requires a genuine mutual trust and mutual autonomy which can
maximize unity while allowing individual liberties. To arrive at
this point, Clark blends scholars who are often cast as
opposites-Albert Schweitzer, Friedrich Nietzsche, and John Rawls-to
forge a new path for an inclusive ethic for a nation, within which
both the religious and non-religious will have equal freedom and
stability.
When the "human sciences" in the West followed the physical
sciences in the 18th and 19th centuries with new measurements,
methods, and language, the "metaphysics of infinity" lost its
credibility. The response of Western religions was to retrench in a
stronger authoritarianism, especially by the last half of the 19th
century. While the new human sciences were being extended even to
study the history and philosophy of religions, those religions
themselves placed more emphasis on their understanding of the
Absolute or Unquestionable. That split became a burden both to
those who were religious and to those who were not. Here, W. Royce
Clark argues that humanity's survival may depend on the development
of a universal or inclusive ethic in which religions move beyond
their Absolutes. Clark poses the sharp challenge: Are religious
communities ready to abandon the foundations that until now they
have insisted were the only adequate foundation for ethics?
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