International lawyers and international relations scholars recognize that international norms change over time. Practices that were once permissible and even "normal" - like slavery, conquest, and wartime plundering - are now prohibited by international rules. Yet though we acknowledge norm change, we are just beginning to understand how and why international rules develop in the ways that they do. Wayne Sandholtz and Kendall Stiles sketch the primary theoretical perspectives on international norm change, the "legalization" and "transnational activist" approaches, and argue that both are limited by their focus on international rules as outcomes. The authors then present their "cycle theory," in which norm change is continual, a product of the constant interplay among rules, behavior, and disputes. International Norms and Cycles of Change is the natural follow-on to Prohibiting Plunder, testing the cycle theory against ten empirical cases. The cases range from piracy and conquest, to terrorism, slavery, genocide, humanitarian intervention, and the right to democracy. The key finding is that, across long stretches of time and diverse substantive areas, norm change occurs via the cycle dynamic. International Norms and Cycles of Change further advances the authors' theoretical approach by arguing that international norms have been shaped by two main currents: sovereignty rules and liberal rules. Sovereignty rules are the necessary norms for establishing an international society of sovereign states and deal with the rights, prerogatives, and duties of states. Liberal rules are norms that emerged out of the Enlightenment and enshrine the basic value, dignity, and inherent rights of each person. Sandholtz and Stiles include five cases of sovereignty rules and five of liberal rules in order to reveal the broad cyclic pattern of international change in these two categories of rules.

This book aims to develop and test a model of International Monetary Fund (IMF) decision-making that will offer a better understanding of how the IMF applies its lending terms to individual countries such as Jamaica, Zaire, Sudan, India, United Kingdom, Turkey and Argentina.

This book aims to develop and test a model of International Monetary Fund (IMF) decision-making that will offer a better understanding of how the IMF applies its lending terms to individual countries such as Jamaica, Zaire, Sudan, India, United Kingdom, Turkey and Argentina.

It is in the receptors of the vertebrate retina that the characteristic visual process - the transduction of radiational energy into physiological activtty of a different kind - takes place. The way these receptors modify or redistribute the incident radiation and thereby control the light ab sorption by the visual pigments they contain, is the central theme of this book. As far back as 1843 Brucke put forward a well-reasoned model for the optics of a receptor, assuming simple ray optics, and it is already some forty-seven years since the dependence of receptor sensitivity on retinal angle of incidence was established experimentally as an important factor in human vision and as one by which the direction of alignment of receptors in the living eye might be determined. But it is to Professor J. M. Enoch, editor and author of several major contributions to this volume, that we owe the first experimental demonstration (in 1961) of the wave-mode propa gation of light in vertebrate visual receptors, as well as the results of some thirty years devoted research concerned with all questions of receptor optics, particularly directional sensitivity and receptor alignment, both for normal vertebrate eyes and for pathologically modified eyes. His work on the latter has opened up a whole range of clinical possibilities."