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The purposes of this book are to provide insight and to draw
attention to problems peculiar to heat transfer at low
temperatures. This does not imply that the theories of classical
heat transfer fail at low temperatures, but rather that many of the
approximations employed in standard solutions techniques are not
valid in this regime. Physical properties, for example, have more
pronounced variations at low temperatures and cannot, as is
conventionally done, be held constant. Fluids readily become
mixtures of two or more phases and their analysis is different from
that for a single-phase fluid. These and other problems which occur
more frequently at low temperatures than at standard conditions are
discussed in this book. Although the title specifies heat transfer,
the book also contains a very comprehensive chapter on two-phase
fluid flow and a partial chapter on the flow of fluids in the
thermodynamically critical state. Emphasis is placed on those flow
phenomena that occur at low temperatures. Flow analyses are, of
course, a prerequisite to forced-convection heat transfer analyses,
and thus these chapters add continuity to the text. The book is
primarily written for the design engineer, but does broach many
topics which should prove interesting to the researcher. For the
student and teacher the book will serve as a useful reference and
possibly as a text for a special topics course in heat transfer.
The purposes of this book are to provide insight and to draw
attention to problems peculiar to heat transfer at low
temperatures. This does not imply that the theories of classical
heat transfer fail at low temperatures, but rather that many of the
approximations employed in standard solutions techniques are not
valid in this regime. Physical properties, for example, have more
pronounced variations at low temperatures and cannot, as is
conventionally done, be held constant. Fluids readily become
mixtures of two or more phases and their analysis is different from
that for a single-phase fluid. These and other problems which occur
more frequently at low temperatures than at standard conditions are
discussed in this book. Although the title specifies heat transfer,
the book also contains a very comprehensive chapter on two-phase
fluid flow and a partial chapter on the flow of fluids in the
thermodynamically critical state. Emphasis is placed on those flow
phenomena that occur at low temperatures. Flow analyses are, of
course, a prerequisite to forced-convection heat transfer analyses,
and thus these chapters add continuity to the text. The book is
primarily written for the design engineer, but does broach many
topics which should prove interesting to the researcher. For the
student and teacher the book will serve as a useful reference and
possibly as a text for a special topics course in heat transfer.
Turbulence takes place in practically all flow situations that
occur naturally or in modern technological systems. Therefore,
considerable effort is being expended in an attempt to understand
this very complex physical phenome non and to develop both
empirical and mathematical models for its description. Such
numerical and analytical computational schemes would allow the
reliable prediction and design of turbulent flow processes to be
carried out. The purpose of this book is to bring together, in a
usable form, some of the fundamental concepts of turbulence along
with turbulence models and experimental techniques. It is hoped
that these have "general applicability" in current engineering
design. The phrase "general applicabil ity" is highlighted because
the theory of turbulence is still so much in a formative stage that
completely general analyses are not available now, nor will they be
available in the immediate future. The concepts and models
described herein represent the state-of-the art methods that are
now being used to give answers to turbulent flow problems. As in
all turbulent flow analysis, the methods are a blend of analytical
and empirical input, and the reader should be cognizant of the
simplification and restrictions imposed upon the methods when
applyingthem to physical situations different from those for which
they have been developed."
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