Shortly after the creation of the Vrije Universiteit Brussel (Free University Brussels) in 1970, currently labelled as VUB, a Department of Quaternary Geology was installed within the Faculty of Science in 1974. At the beginning it dealt mainly with the study of periglacial loess deposits of the Pleistocene Glacial Period in Central Belgium and with coastal deposits in relation to sea level rise during the warm Holocene period covering the last 10,000 years, in which the dawn of civilization took place step by step. Today the same research teams widen their scope of interest: they are presently studying the loess plateau in the People's Republic of China and the world-wide problems associated with sea level rise, coastal erosion being one of the most devastating natural hazards. More and more emphasis is put on problems concerning environmental engineering and those dealing with global change. Since 1975 UNESCO sponsored a number of symposia of the International Union for Quaternary Research (INQUA), whose secretariat was located on the VUB Campus grounds from 1973 to 1982. In 1981 the Applied Geology Department ofthe Faculty of Applied Sciences was created. The NATO-Advanced Research Workshop (ARW) , organized in Fuerteventura (Canary Islands, Spain) in March 1989 was a climax of this series of Global Change gatherings. As Rector of the VUB, I am satisfied that the VUB, through its Earth Technology Institute, of both USA and Belgium could cooperate with NATO and the National Science Foundations in cosponsoring such an initiative.

The protection of groundwater resources has emerged in recent years as a high priority topic on the agenda of many countries. In responding to the growing concern over deteriorating groundwater quality, many countries are developing a comprehensive regulatory framework for the management of subsurface water resources with management referring to both quantity and quality aspects. Within this framework, groundwater models are rapidly coming to playa central role in the development of protection and rehabilitation strategies. These models provide forecasts of the future state of the groundwater aquifer systems and/or the unsaturated zone in response to proposed management initiatives. For example, models will predict the effects of implementing a proposed management scheme on water levels and on the transport and fate of pollutants. The models are now used in the formulation of policies and regulations, the issuing of permits, design of monitoring and data collection systems, and the development of enforcement actions. The growth in the use of these sophisticated tools has led to many unforeseen problems in groundwater management. Lingering issues include reliability of codes, quality assurance in model development and applications, efficient utiliza tion of human and material resources, technology transfer and training. Some issues have legal ramifications, as in cases where the applications of models have been contested in courts."

The irrigated area in the Aral Sea basin totals about 7. 5 million hectare. Part of the water supplied to this area is consumed by the irrigated crop; the remainder of the supplied water drains to the groundwater basin, to downstream depressions, or back to the rivers. During its use, however, this drained part of the water accumulates salts and chemicals. The disposal of this polluted water causes a variety of (environmental) problems. If the percentage consumed water of the total water supply to an irrigated area (the so-called overall consumed ratio) can be increased, less water needs to be drained. This alleviates part of the related (environmental) problems. Further, if the overall consumed ratio for the above 7. 5 million hectare is improved, less water needs to be diverted from the rivers. Hence, more water can flow towards the Aral Sea. As mentioned above, part of the non-consumed irrigation water drains to the groundwater basin. Commonly, the natural discharge capacity of this basin is insufficient to handle this imported water. As a result, the groundwater table rises towards the land surface causing waterlogging. In (semi-)arid zones this waterlogging triggers a soil salinity problem resulting to a significant reduction in crop yields. The artificial increase of the discharge capacity, and lowering of the groundwater table, solves the soil salinity problem.

Floods constitute a persistent and serious problem throughout the United States and many other parts of the world. They are responsible for losses amounting to billions of dollars and scores of deaths annually. Virtually all parts of the nation--coastal, moun tainous and rural--are affected by them. Two aspects of the problem of flooding that have long been topics of scientific inquiry are flood frequency and risk analyses. Many new, even improved, tech niques have recently been developed for performing these analyses. Nevertheless, actual experience points out that the frequency of say a IOO-year flood, in lieu of being encountered on the average once in one hundred years, may be as little as once in 25 years. It is therefore appropriate to pause and ask where we are, where we are going and where we ought to be going with regard to the technology of flood frequency and risk analyses. One way to address these ques tions is to provide a forum where people from all quarters of the world can assemble, discuss and share their experience and expertise pertaining to flood frequency and risk analyses. This is what con stituted the motivation for organizing the International Symposium on Flood Frequency and Risk Analyses held May 14-17, 1986, at Louisiana State Universj. ty, Baton Rouge, Louisiana."

In recent years, much concern has been expressed on the deleterious effects that anthropogenic emissions of acidic pollutants have on ecosystems of both industrialized countries and remote areas of the world. In many of these regions, seasonal snowcover is a major factor in the transfer of atmospheric pollutants, either to terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems or to the more permanent reservoirs of glaciers and ice sheets. The recognition of the role that seasonal snowcovers can thus play in the chemical dynamics of whole ecosystems was recently echoed by the Committee on Glaciology of the National Research Council (National Academy of Sciences, National Academy of Engineering and the Institute of Medicine) which recommended that studies on "Impurities in the snowpack, their discharge into runoff, and management of the problem" be rated at the highest prority level (ref. a). It is in this context that the Advanced Research Institute (ASI) brought together scientists active in the fields of snow physics, snow chemistry and snow hydrology. The programme was structured so as to facilitate the exchange of information and ideas on the theories for the chemical evolution of seasonal snowcovers and snowmelt and on the impact of the chemical composition of the meltwaters on the different components of hydrological systems. As a consequence the ASI also attracted participants from potential users of the information that was disseminated; these were particularly concerned with the effects of snowmelt and snowcover on terrestrial biota and those of lakes and streams.

Remote sensing is the study of a region from a distance, particularly from an airplane or a spacecraft. It is a tool that can be used in conjunction with other methods of research and investigation. This tool is especially applicable to the study of the deserts and arid lands of the Earth because of their immense size and their inaccessibility to detailed study by conventional means. In this book examples are given of the utility of aerial photographs and space images in the study of semi-arid, arid, and hyper-arid terrains. Emphasis is placed on the physical features and terrain types using examples from around the world. The authors I have called upon to prepare each chapter are renowned specialists whose contributions have received international recognition. To the general reader, this book is a review of our knowledge of the relatively dry parts of the Earth, their classification and varied features, their evolution in space and time, and their development potentials. To the specialist, it is a detailed account of the deserts and arid lands, not only in North America, but also their relatively unknown counterparts in North Africa, Australia, China, India, and Arabia.

Trans-boundary water resources are often a cause of conflict among riparian entities. Increasing demand for water resources and deterioration of existing water sources underscore the need to resolve conflicts over the allocation of consumption and pollution rights among conflicting uses and users. Because economic growth of the entities that share a water resource depends on sustainability of the resource, water has great potential as a basis for cooperation among political entities. However, enforcement of cooperation particularly in international settings is limited. Thus, parties sharing a water resource will form and remain in a cooperating coalition only when economic incentives for each can be identified. This book offers an economic approach to resolution of conflicts by identifying economic mechanisms that encourage sustainable cooperation. The book includes discussions on international, interstate, and intrastate disputes regarding both water quantity and water quality issues. It presents mechanisms for facilitating cooperation among users from agricultural, industrial, domestic, and environmental sectors.It considers the experience and potential in many regions around the world including Australia (the Muray-Darling Basin), Latin America (Chile), the Middle East (Israel and the Palestinian Authority), the U.S. (California, Florida's Everglades, Hawaii, and the Chesapeake Bay), and Africa (South Africa, Lesotho). Part I of the book discusses international experience in forming water coalitions and offers an illustrative model of water quality coalitions. It emphasizes the dependence of sustainability of international agreements on the practical ability to create incentives through economic mechanisms and political linkages that overcome the problem of limited enforcement due to sovereignty claims. Part II of the book discusses management of intrastate U.S. water resources involving competing local jurisdictions or user groups and the U.S. and Australian attempts to facilitate state management of interstate water resources through federal cooperation. Part III of the book explores the expanding scope of trans-boundary water resource issues that contribute to complexity of conflict beyond traditional interests such as allocation and navigation rights.In particular, it analyzes the economic implications of nutrient, land, and airshed management in an environment where the interaction of trans-boundary water resources with the ecological system is considered. Trans-boundary water usage and infrastructure are discussed in the context of privatization and political uncertainty. Part IV of the book examines economic solutions to trans-boundary water allocation including water markets, tradable water permits, contractual arrangements, and coordinated management. The interaction between ground and surface water and the interaction between desalinated, recycled, and fresh water is analyzed in the context of optimal water allocation. The book concludes with a critical discussion of the role and potential of the economics profession in contributing to conflict resolution and management of trans-boundary water resources. The strengths and weaknesses of economic analysis are discussed with special consideration of the modern tools of bargaining theory and game theory that go beyond economic efficiency in considering political realities.

The completion of this collection took many months, and, for a variety of reason, required the assistance and/or indulgence of a number of individuals. First and foremost, I would like to thank Tim Hudson for his useful input and support at the outset of the project Likewise, I would like to thank Jesse O. McKee for providing a hospitable environment during my affiliation with the University of Southern Mississippi. At Louisiana State University I am grateful to Sam Hilliard and Carville Earle for their invaluable understanding. The book became part of the GeoJoumal Library as a result of Wolf Tietze's confidence in the topic, and because of Henri G. van Dorssen's (and Kluwer Academic Publishers') good nab.lre - despite numerous 'problems'. Curtis C. Roseman, and the remainder of the Geography Department at the University of Southern California (where I completed many last minute details for the volume), are to be thanked for the cordial and warm environ ment I received while a visitor in Los Angeles. Finally, no multi-authored collection reaches completion without the help of many patient contributors. This particular book suffered many set-backs along the way, so I am particularly grateful to the authors herein. They demonstrated their compassion and exceptional professionalism throughout, by never second-guessing my decisions, and by allowing me to remedy the set-backs in my own way. They were a pleasure to work with, and they should take pride in their achievements."

About four years ago Dr. Gilbert White visited China and sowed the seeds of this project through conversations with Drs. Huang and Gong of the Chinese Academy of Sciences, and Mr. Long of the Yellow River Conservancy Commission. After some additional rounds of communications by letter, the plan for a workshop evolved and Drs. Wolman and Brush visited with Dr. Sabadell of the Nat_ional Science Foundation to begin the initial planning. In March 1987 Dr. Brush visited China and the details were worked out for the October 1987 workshop. At the outset it was recognized that the 10 American scientists and engineers ltad very Ii ttle knowledge of the Yellow River and none had ever seen it. Therefore, it became important that field trips be scheduled before the workshop to better set the stage for fruitful discussions. It was also acknowledged that the American participants could not present papers about the Yellow River per se so their offerings reflected their general knowledge of rivers using other rivers as examples. On the other hand the Chinese participants were all well into the difficult problems of harnessing the Yellow River and made their presentations accordingly. Despite these differences the subject matter was the unifying thread and cross communication was excellent.

Causes of major disasters are many and diverse, and the risks associated with them endanger human lives, property, the environment, the economy, and even the country's political and social well-being. It is clear that, with rapid population growth, environmental degradation, climate change, poorly regulated industries, and continued economic uncertainty, the chances are that communities may become more vulnerable to disasters. The dramatic losses in recent years from volcanic eruptions, earthquakes and landslides, wildland fires, droughts and floods, cyclones and storm surges attest to the fact that we are still a long way from applying even the knowledge we have today to make communities safe. Tackling this problem requires a sound evaluation of disaster mitigation policies and tools. As a contribution to the International Decade for Natural Disasters Reduction (IDNDR), the fifth international symposium HAZARDS-93 was held in Qingdao, P.R. China on 29 August - 3 September, 1993. China is a country frequently hit by almost all kinds of disasters. Its history is one of combating natural disasters and working towards their reduction. More than 250 scientists, engineers and government officials from 20 countries met for the purpose of engaging in a free exchange of knowledge, experience and ideas regarding the scientific and socio-economic aspects of mitigating losses from natural and man- made disasters. A total of 180 papers were presented at 28 sessions covering a very broad range of topics related to disaster management. The twenty-one articles included in this book deal with the scientific and management issues of land-based and marine hazards which cause the most severe economic losses, deaths and environmental degradation in many parts of the world. The book also includes specific recommendations addressed to the IDNDR Secretariat, national governments and scientific experts to increase the effectiveness and efficiency of disaster management. Thus, Land-Based and Marine Hazards: Scientific and Management Issues forms an excellent reference for scientists, engineers, policy-makers and the insurance industry.

For centuries, physical models have been used to investigate complex hydraulic problems. Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519) stated, "I will treat of such a subject. But first of all, 1 shall make a few experiments and then demonstrate why bodies are forced to act in this matter. " Even with the current advancements of mathematical numerical models, certain complex three-dimensional flow phenomena must still rely on physical model studies. Mathematical models cannot provide adequate solutions if physical processes involved are not completely known. Physical models are particularly attractive to investigate phenomena-involved sediment movements because many three-dimensional sediment processes are still unclear at this stage. Theoretically, there are numerous factors governing movable bed processes and it is nearly impossible to design model studies to obey all the model criteria. Sometimes, appropriate lightweight materials are difficult or too costly to obtain. Often, distorted models are used due to the limitation of available space and the requirement for greater vertical flow depth to investigate vertical differences of various parameters. The turbulence level in the model may also be maintained at a sufficient level to reproduce a similar flow pattern in the prototype. Frequently, engineers are forced to employ distorted models that cannot be designed to satisfy all governing criteria correctly. Thus each hydraulic laboratory has developed its own rules for model testing and a great deal of experience is needed to interpret model results.

Earthquake Hazard and Risk is a book summarizing selected papers presented at the 27th General Assembly of the International Association of Seismology and Physics of the Earth's Interior (Wellington, January 1994). The papers, rigorously scrutinized by an international board of referees, cover some recent aspects of current research in earthquake hazard and seismic risk. They address the algorithms and methodology used in seismological applications, the reliability of these techniques with the decreasing level of probability and uncertainty associated with various seismotectonic settings, the physical and statistical nature of earthquake occurrences, strong ground motions and effects of surface seismogeological conditions. A special effort has been made to include papers that illustrate the assessment of earthquake hazard and seismic risk through applications at sites in either inter-plate or intra-plate tectonic settings. Of particular interest is hazard assessment in regions of rare large earthquakes. The book is suitable for those interested in earthquake hazard and seismic risk research as well as a more general audience of seismologists, geophysicists and Earth scientists. It is also useful for authorities responsible for public safety and natural hazard mitigation plans and for insurance companies.

Water development projects have altered the environmental flow landscapes where dams and diversions have been built, and this could have effects on coastal resources, particularly in estuaries. Water is an important human resource and water needs grow as populations grow. However, freshwater inflow to the coast is fundamental to the functioning of estuaries. Can we have stable, secure, and sufficient water resources for people and still protect estuarine health? Estuaries are the most productive environments on Earth, and this is in part due to freshwater inflow, which dilutes marine water, and transports nutrients and sediments to the coast. Estuaries are characterized by salinity and nutrient gradients, which are important in regulating many biological processes. As water is diverted for human consumption, it is common for many environmental problems to appear. While many countries have water quality programs, few are dealing with water quantity alterations.The first step is to define marine resources to protect, and the water quality conditions those resources need to thrive.The second step is to determine the flow regimes needed to maintain the desired water quality conditions. Finally, many regions are using adaptive management programs to manage freshwater resources. These programs set goals to protect ecosystem resources, identify indicators, and monitor the indicators over time to ensure that the goals are appropriate and resources are protected. Case studies demonstrate that monitoring and research can determine the ecological and socio-economical impacts of altered freshwater inflows, and stakeholders and managers can make well-informed decisions to manage freshwater inflows to local coasts wisely. "

Earthquakes are the expression of the continuing evolution of the Earth planet and of the deformation of its crust and occur worldwide; while the largest events (M>7. 5) concentrate on plate boundary areas and active plate interiors, moderate earthquakes may take place, if rarely, in all continental areas and may turn catastrophic in areas with poor building construction practice, as tragically shown by the sequence of earthquakes striking the Caucasus region in recent years (Spitak, Armenia, 1988; Rutbar, W. Iran, 1990; Ratcha, Georgia, 1991; Erzincan, E. Turkey, 1992). Vulnerability to disaster is increasing as urbanisation and development occupy more areas that are prone to the effects of significant earthquakes. In order to minimize the loss of life, property damage and social and economic disruption caused by earthquakes, it is essential that reliable estimates of seismic hazard be available to national decision makers and engineers for land use planning and improved building design and construction. While short- and mid-term earthquake prediction may one day be able to reduce significantly the death toll of earthquakes, the environmental effects (collapse of buildings and infrastructures, disruption of the productive chain, human resettlement) can be reduced only through a long-term prevention policy in earthquake-prone areas based on the assessment of seismic hazard and risk, the implementation of safe building construction codes, the increased public awareness on natural disasters, a strategy of land-use planning taking into account the seismic hazard and the occurrence of other natural disasters.

Floods are natural hazards whose effects can deeply affect the economic and environmental equilibria of a region. Quality of life of people living in areas close to rivers depends on both the risk that a flood would occur and the reliability of flood forecast, warning and control systems. Tools for forecasting and mitigating floods have been developed through research in the recent past. Two innovations currently influence flood hazard mitigation, after many decades of lack of significant progress: they are the development of new technologies for real-time flood forecast and warning (based on weather radars and satellites) and a shift from structural to non-structural flood control measures, due to increased awareness of the importance of protecting the environment and the adverse impacts of hydraulic works on it. This book is a review of research progress booked in the improvements of forecast capability and the control of floods. Mostly the book presents the results of recent research in hydrology, modern techniques of real-time forecast and warning, and ways of controlling floods for smaller impacts on the environment. A number of case studies of floods in different geographical areas are also presented. Scientists and specialists working in fields of hydrology, environmental protection and hydraulic engineering will appreciate this book for its theoretical and practical content.

Environmental Systems Engineering and Economics emphasizes the application of optimization, economics, and systems engineering to problems in environmental resources management. This senior level/graduate textbook introduces optimization theory and algorithms that have been successful in resolving water quality and groundwater management problems. Both linear programming and nonlinear optimization are presented. Multiobjective optimization and the linked simulation-optimization (LSO) methodology are also introduced. The basic principles of economics and engineering economics are also discussed to provide a framework for economic decision making. This text contains numerous example problems. Case studies are presented that address water resources management issues in the north China plain, the control of saltwater intrusion in Jakarta, Indonesia, and groundwater resources management in the Yun Lin basin, Taiwan.

This book covers topics on the basic models, assessments, and techniques to calculate evapotranspiration (ET) for practical applications in agriculture, forestry, and urban science. This simple and thorough guide provides the information and techniques necessary to develop, manage, interpret, and apply evapotranspiration ET data to practical applications. The simplicity of the contents assists technicians in developing ET data for effective water management.

Microfossils are ideally suited to environmental studies because their short generation times allow them to respond rapidly to environmental change. This book represents an assessment of the progress made in environmental micropalaeontology and sets out future research directions. The taxa studied are mainly foraminifera, but include arcellaceans, diatoms, dinoflagellates, and ostracodes. The papers themselves range from reviews of applications of particular taxa to specific case studies.

The appearance of this Second Edition has been encouraged by the favorable reception of the first. This has offered us the opportunity to update the materials and to expand the exposition ofour central theses concerning (1) the integration of water quantity-quality issues and the treatment of water as a multi-product commodity, with the market playing a major role in determining water quality-discriminant pricing; (2) the drawbacks of public controls, regulation and enforcement, and the need to expand privatization of water supply and of water and wastewater treatment facilities to ensure their appropriate development and modernization through increased reliance on private capital; (3) the unification and centralization of water management on the river basin level in order to handle effectively the expanding pressures for water availability, for the elimination of waterborne disease, for extensive and effective pollution abatement as well as coping with the related issues of soil erosion, siltation in streams, channels, and reservoirs, protection against distress from drought and floods, and with the myriad problems relating to the environment, recreation, and navigation. We have maintained the division ofthe book into four major parts and 12 chapters.

Diffusion in Natural Porous Media: Contaminant Transport, Sorption/Desorption and Dissolution Kinetics introduces the general principles of diffusion in the subsurface environment and discusses the implications for the fate and transport of contaminants in soils and groundwater. Emphasis is placed on sorption/desorption and the dissolution kinetics of organic contaminants, both of which are limited by the slow speed of molecular diffusion. Diffusion in Natural Porous Media: Contaminant Transport, Sorption/Desorption and Dissolution Kinetics compiles methods for calculating the diffusion coefficients of organic compounds (in aqueous solution or vapor phase) in natural porous media. The author uses analytical solutions of Fick's 2nd law and some simple numerical models to model diffusive transport under various initial and boundary conditions. A number of these models may be solved using spreadsheets. The book examines sorption/desorption rates of organic compounds in various soils and aquifer materials, and also examines the dissolution kinetics of nonaqueous phase liquids in aquifers, in both the trapped residual phase and in pools. Diffusion in Natural Porous Media: Contaminant Transport, Sorption/Desorption and Dissolution Kinetics concludes with a discussion of the impact of slow diffusion processes on soil and groundwater decontamination and the implications of these processes for groundwater risk assessment.

Since human beings first appeared on the earth, we have changed land cover and land use for our own purposes, such as conveniences and high productivity. As a result of the land cover and land use changes, many serious environmental problems occur on the earth. Studying meteorological and hydrological effects of vegetation and land cover/use changes helps us to understand the environmental changes and problems happening near the earth surface, because the vegetation distributes the solar energy and water on the earth surface into atmosphere and geosphere. Subsurface hydrological responses to land cover and land use changes have drawn only regional environmental concerns, although global change caused by biosphere change has been studied in various scientific fields. The changes in land cover and land use alter water, solute and heat cycles in basins and elements of those balances, including evapotranspiration, groundwater recharge rate, discharge rates into rivers or ocean and soil moisture content, which are directly or indirectly related to the global environmental issues. Therefore, the changes in biosphere may substantially alter the subsurface hydrological system. For instance, increased groundwater recharge rates following clearing forest into grasses might be one consequence resulting in rising water tables and salinization.

Water is one of the world's threatened resources: it is also a substance of importance in Geology. For some years I have felt the need for a book that sets out the fundamentals of fluid mechanics, written for geologists rather than engineers. The efforts to repair my own deficiencies in this respect led me along various unfamiliar paths, few of which were unrewarding. This book is the result of my journeys through the literature and as a geologist in several parts of the world. It has been written for students of geology of all ages, in the simplest terms possible, and it has one objective: to provide a basis for an understanding of the mechanical role of water in geology. It has not been written for experts in ground water hydrology, or specialists in the fluid aspects of structural geology: it has been written for geologists like me who are not very good mathematicians, so that we can take water better into account in our normal geological work, whatever it might be. The fundamentals apply equally to mineralization, geochemistry, and vulcanology although they have not been specifically mentioned. It has also been written for the university student of geology so that he or she may start a career with some appreciation of the importance of water, and understanding of its movement."

More and more clinicians as well as researchers realize that anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa often are extremely difficult to treat and that the short-term outcome can be very misleading. In many cases these disordersprevail for a long period of time and can have serious consequences for the patient's further life. This book gives a detailed over- view oftoday's knowledge regarding the long-term outcome of the treatment of anorexic and bulimic patients, many of whom were treated in highly spezialized centers. Experts from bo- th Europe and the U.S. report on theirmost recent research. Their studies include medical as well as psychosocial and psychiatric aspects of eating disorders. Clinicians with long experience in the treatment of eating disorder patients discuss the important practical implications of these rese- arch findings. The information given in this book is helpful for both treatment and prevention of eating disorders. Finally, concrete guidelines show as how to conduct further follow-up studies in this field.

The well documented history of pollution and recovery in the Thames Estuary has made the system one of the world's most famous case studies. However, the story is incomplete in terms of the status of the rehabilitated ecosystem resulting from the remedial management policies. What ecosystem might we expect to recover from a once lifeless estuary? have the extensive efforts made by policy makers, environmental managers and scientists resulted in a diverse, complex estuary that may be a model for other systems? This book draws together many detailed aspects of the recovering Thames Estuary ecosystem from environmental management and scientific sources. The result is probably the most comprehensive account of the management and ecology of a single estuarine system yet produced. It includes important and extensive long term studies of the fish communities, water quality and management policy, spatial accounts along the full length of the estuary for benthic invertebrates and algae, significant case studies on zooplankton, saltmarshes and parasitology, as well as an overview looking forward to the next millennium.Altogether, this study of the long term ecological consequences of management policy provides a benchmark for comparison with other estuarine ecosystems, both 'natural' and rehabilitated, and forms a unique and valuable reference for environmental managers, estuarine scientists and ecologists.