Efforts to effectively conserve and manage marine resources are facing increasing complexity of environmental and governance challenges. To address some of these challenges, this book presents advancements in fisheries bioeconomics research that provides significant ideas for addressing emerging environmental and fisheries management issues. Advances in Fisheries Bioeconomics gives insights into innovative approaches dealing with these issues, as well as novel ideas on changes in fisheries management paradigms. With contributions from leading experts in the field, this book offers an examination of a number of topics including: ecosystem based fisheries management; by-catch management and discard bans; the number of players in the fisheries game; the effects of ocean acidification; and the trends and impacts of eco-labeling and eco-certification of fisheries. Through integrating resource biology and ecology with the economics of fishers' behaviour, the authors provide valuable analysis of the current issues in fisheries management. This book will be of interest to those on advanced courses in fisheries science, natural resource biology and ecology, and environmental and natural resource economics. It will also appeal to researchers, policy makers, and advocacy groups around the world.

This important volume brings together an authoritative selection of the leading papers on the subject of maritime transport. With a new introductory essay by the editors, the collection provides a thorough examination of the topics associated with this area, including maritime economics, transport law and policy. Part I includes articles on carrier management and operations. Part II looks in detail at competition policy and pricing. Part III discusses finance, the fiscal treatment of shipping and flag of registry issues. Part IV covers the area of law and policy and Part V examines market and structures. Finally, Part VI focuses on ports. This collection will be an invaluable resource for major maritime academies and to students and researchers in the subject of maritime transport.

It is widely accepted that limiting climate change to 2 DegreesC will require substantial and sustained investments in low-carbon technologies and infrastructure. However, the dominance of market fundamentalism in economic thinking for the past three decades has meant that governments have generally viewed large spending programs as politically undesirable. In this context, the Global Financial Crisis (GFC) represented a huge opportunity for proponents of public investment in environmental projects or "Green Keynesianism". This book examines the experience of Australia, Canada, Japan, Korea, and the United States with Green Keynesian stimulus programs in the wake of the GFC. Unfortunately, on the whole, the cases do not provide much optimism for proponents of Green Keynesianism. Much less funding than was originally allocated to green programs was actually spent in areas that would produce an environmental benefit. Furthermore, a number of projects had negligible or even detrimental environmental outcomes. While the book also documents several success stories, the research indicates overall that more careful consideration of the design of green stimulus programs is needed. In addition to concrete policy advice, the book provides a broader vision for how governments could use Keynesian policies to work toward creating an "ecological state". This book will be of great interest to students and scholars of environmental politics, environmental economics, political economy, and sustainable development.

There has been an explosion in the literature and research on environmental and resource economics in recent years. This major annual publication provides a cutting-edge survey of current research by the leading experts in the field. The latest Yearbook includes contributions on: economics and the land use-environment link; issues in the economics of water use; the economics of residential solid waste management; population and the environment; subsidiarity, federalism and the environment; transboundary pollution and international cooperation; and environmental valuation and standard economic theory.

1. ENVIRONMENTAL POLICY ANALYSIS: WHAT AND WHY? Why environmental policy analysis? Environmental issues are growing in visibility in local, national, and world arenas, as a myriad of human activities leads to increased impacts on the natural world. Issues such as climate change, endangered species, wilderness protection, and energy use are regularly on the front pages of newspapers. Governments at all levels are struggling with how to address these issues. Environmental policy analysis is intended to present the environmental and social impacts of policies, in the hope that better decisions will result when people have better information on which to base those decisions. Conducting environmental policy analysis requires people who understand what it is and how to do it. Interpreting it also requires those skills. We hope that this book will increase the abilities, both of analysts and of decision-makers, to understand and interpret the impacts of environmental policies. Policy analysis books almost invariably begin by pointing out that policy analysis can take many forms. This book is no different. As you will see in Chapter 1, we consider policy analysis to be information provided for the policy process. That information can take many forms, from sophisticated empirical analysis to general theoretical results, from summary statistics to game theoretic strategies.

The major purpose of this book is to contribute to better economic policy analysis through improvements in models studying the economic impacts of carbon dioxide (CO2) and other greenhouse gases, and to show ways in which economic instruments can effectively be put to use to alleviate such problems. Global Environmental Economics is an integrated economic assessment of GHG emissions impacting economic growth and welfare change along major considerations of uncertainty, technological change and cooperation. A theoretical treatment of the issues is emphasized, using modern tools of economic theory and based on 'simple' models that yield illustrative results in terms of 'what-if' questions. With this focus the book distinguishes itself uniquely from other economic analytic approaches in the field that have appeared in the past few years. It focuses on the analysis, control and optimization of modelling forms rather than the collection and analysis of data. More concretely, the book searches for optimal fossil fuel use, research and technology policies rather than prediction of the future. The collection appeals to researchers interested in environmental economics, economic theory, and mathematical methods (in particular optimal-control theory) and economic growth.

1 Einleitung.- 1.1 Teil I - Ausrichtung der Umweltkostenrechnung.- 1.2 Teil II - Realisierung und Nutzung des Reststoff-Controlling.- 1 - Ausrichtung der Umweltkostenrechnung.- 2 Anforderungen an die kostenrechnerische Unterstutzung des Umweltmanagements.- 2.1 Anforderungen an die Kostenrechnung.- 2.1.1 Einordnung in das System Betrieb.- 2.1.2 Einordnung in die betriebliche Datenverarbeitung.- 2.1.3 Modellbildung, Kostentheorie und Kostenrechnung.- 2.1.4 Funktionale Anforderungen.- 2.1.4.1 Effektivitat durch relevante Kosteninformation.- 2.1.4.2 Effektivitat durch Empfangerorientierung.- 2.1.5 Strukturelle Anforderungen.- 2.1.6 Zusammenfassung der Anforderungen.- 2.2 Aufgaben des Umweltmanagements.- 2.2.1 Umweltschutz und Kuppelproduktion.- 2.2.1.1 Kuppelproduktion und die industrielle Gutererzeugung.- 2.2.1.2 Begriffliche Strukturierung von Inputs und Outputs.- 2.2.1.3 Begriflliche Strukturierung der Handhabung von Reststoffen.- 2.2.2 Umweltschutz und die betriebliche Leistungserstellung.- 2.2.2.1 Funktionen der Umwelt fur die betriebliche Leistungserstellung.- 2.2.2.2 Umwelt als Produktionsfaktor.- 2.2.2.3 Prazisierung des Begriffes Umweltschutz.- 2.2.3 Umweltschutz und das Zielsystem.- 2.2.3.1 Das Zielsystem der Untemehmung.- 2.2.3.2 Typische Formalziele.- 2.2.3.3 Umweltziele sowie Sach- und Formalziele.- 2.2.3.4 Einordnung des Umweltschutzes in das Zielsystem.- 2.2.4 Aufgaben des Umweltmanagements.- 2.2.4.1 Aufgaben und Ausrichtung.- 2.2.4.2 Zentrale Ansatzpunkte.- 2.2.4.3 Einrichtung eines Umweltmanagementsystems.- 2.3 Anforderungen an Umweltinformationssysteme.- 2.3.1 Systematisierung von Umweltinformationssystemen.- 2.3.1.1 Gliederung nach Teilsystemen.- 2.3.1.2 Relevante Elemente der Teilsysteme.- 2.3.2 Funktionale Anforderungen.- 2.3.3 Strukturelle Anforderungen.- 2.3.3.1 Funktionsubergreifend einheitliche Begriffssystematik und Datenbasis.- 2.3.3.2 UEbersetzung von physischen Daten in monetare Daten.- 2.3.3.3 Durchgangige Stoffstromtransparenz.- 2.3.4 Zusammenfassung der Anforderungen.- 2.4 Anforderungen an die kostenrechnerische Unterstutzung des Umweltmanagements.- 2.4.1 Funktionale Anforderungen.- 2.4.1.1 Interne Anforderungen.- 2.4.1.2 Extemer Informationsbedarf.- 2.4.2 Strukturelle Anforderungen.- 2.4.3 Zusammenfassung der Anforderungen.- 3 Definition des Kostenblocks 'Umwelt'.- 3.1 Bedeutung der Kostendefinition.- 3.2 Umweltschutzkosten auf der Basis intemalisierter Kosten.- 3.2.1 Definition der Umweltschutzkosten.- 3.2.2 Enthaltene Kostengruppen.- 3.2.3 Bewertung der Umweltschutzkosten.- 3.2.3.1 Motivation von Management und Mitarbeitem.- 3.2.3.2 Eindeutigkeit und Praktikabilitit.- 3.2.3.3 Vollstandigkeit und Relevanz.- 3.2.3.4 Zusammenfassung der Bewertung.- 3.3 Umweltschutzkosten auf der Basis extemalisierter Kosten.- 3.3.1 Gliederung und Hoehe extemalisierter Umweltschutzkosten.- 3.3.2 Bewertung unter dem Formalziel Gewinn.- 3.3.3 Bewertung unter dem Formalziel Umweltschutz.- 3.3.4 Einbeziehung extemalisierter Kosten durch Lenkungspreise.- 3.4 Reststofikosten als Kostenblock 'Umwelt'.- 3.4.1 Ableitung des konzeptionellen Ansatzes.- 3.4.2 Definition der Reststofikosten.- 3.4.2.1 Enthaltene Kostengruppen.- 3.4.2.2 Variabilitat.- 3.4.3 Bewertung der Reststofikosten.- 3.4.3.1 Vollstandigkeit und Relevanz.- 3.4.3.2 Eindeutigkeit und Praktikabilitat.- 3.4.3.3 Motivation von Management und Mitarbeitern.- 3.4.3.4 Zusammenfassung der Bewertung.- 3.5 Abgrenzung zu verwandten Kostenbloecken.- 3.5.1 Kosten von Kuppelprodukten.- 3.5.2 Fehlleistungsaufwand und Qualitatskosten.- 2 - Realisierung und Nutzung des Reststoff-Controlling.- 4 Realislerung und Nutzung des Reststoff-Controlling.- 4.1 Anwendungsgebiete.- 4.2 Grundsatzliche Festlegungen.- 4.3 Reststoff-Mengenrecbnung.- 4.3.1 Datenmodell der Mengenrecbnung.- 4.3.1.1 Mengenstelle.- 4.3.1.2 Material.- 4.3.1.3 Bewegung.- 4.3.1.4 Stoffstrom.- 4.3.1.5 Beschrankung aufrelevante Mengenstellen und Bewegungen.- 4.3.1.6 Konsequenzen fur Stuckliste und R

This book examines the possibilities and limitations of corporate social responsibility in minimising the violent conflict often associated with natural resource exploitation. Through detailed and penetrating empirical analysis, the author skilfully asks why previous corporate social responsibility practices have not always achieved their aims. This theme is explored though an analysis of two of the most complex and protracted conflicts linked to natural resources in the Asia Pacific region: Bougainville (Papua New Guinea) and West Papua (Indonesia). Drawing on first-hand accounts of corporate executives and communities affected by resource conflict, this book documents the translation of global corporate social responsibility into local peace. Covering topics as diverse as post-colonialism, law, revenue distribution, security, the environment and customary reconciliation, this ambitious text reveals how and why current corporate social responsibility initiatives may be unable to assist extractive companies avoid social conflict. The study concludes that this is attributable to the failure of extractive companies to respond to the social and environmental issues of most concern to local host communities. The idea is that extractive companies could actively contribute to peace building if they were to engage with the interdependencies between business activity and the root causes of conflict. What sets this book apart is that it offers a holistic framework for extractive companies to engage with the complexity of resource conflict. 'Interdependent Engagement' is an integrated model of corporate social responsibility that encourages extractive companies to deal with the underlying causes of resource conflict, rather than applying solutions or critiques of their symptoms.

The Behavioral Economics of Climate Change: Adaptation Behaviors, Global Public Goods, Breakthrough Technologies, and Policy-Making shows readers how to understand mitigation strategies emerging from global warming policy discussions and the ways that changing climate conditions can alter these strategies. Through quantitative analyses, case studies and policy examples, this bottom-up approach to climate change economics gives readers the tools to create effective responses to global warming. This self-contained book on the topic covers key scientific and economic subjects in an applied, innovative and immediately relevant fashion.

Reauthorization of the Superfund law continues to be a major source of controversy among political leaders and environmental activists. Some seek a major overhaul of the statute, arguing that considerable cleanup still needs to be done. Others oppose major changes, asserting that cleanup is almost complete. One of the most contentious issues in the debate is whether the taxes that once stocked the Superfund Trust Fund need to be reinstated. The answer depends in large part on how much money EPA will need to implement the Superfund program. To inform this discussion, the U.S. Congress asked Resources for the Future (RFF) to estimate the program's future costs. The results of this research are included in Superfund's Future, a book that will become an essential reference for all participants in the debate about one of the nation's most controversial environmental programs.

Every year, the world's governments spend over US $700 billion subsidizing activities that harm the environment. The Natural Wealth of Nations shows how cutting these wasteful subsidies can actually boost the economy, save tax and help the environment. By raising taxes on harmful activities like air pollution whilst cutting taxes on payrolls and profits, pollution is discouraged and both work and investment boosted. In a comprehensive global survey, The Natural Wealth of Nations provides examples from Sweden to Spain to Malaysia of the growing number of countries that are successfully using these market-based approaches to clean up their environments. This is an accessible, practical book offering concrete proposals for cleaning up the world's environment and overcoming ecological ignorance.

Energy from wave and tidal power is a key component of current policies for renewable sources of energy. This book provides the first comprehensive exploration of legal, economic, and social issues related to the emerging ocean energy industry, in particular wave and tidal energy technologies. This industry is rapidly developing, and considerable technical literature has developed around the technology. However, it is shown that challenges relating to regulation and policy are major impediments to industry development, and these aspects have not previously been sufficiently highlighted and studied. The book informs policymakers, industry participants, and researchers of the key issues in this developing field. Ocean energy is considered in the context of the blue economy and an industrialising ocean, and the topics covered include: development of policy (policy instruments, risk and delay in technology development); legal aspects (consenting processes, resource management, impact assessment); human interactions (conflicts, consultation, community benefits); and spatial planning of the marine environment. While offshore wind energy, sited in the oceans but not strictly derived from the ocean, is not the primary focus of the book, there is also discussion of the similarities and differences between offshore wind and wave and tidal power policy dimensions.

The book, as originally conceived, was to be limited to technical considerations, but the scientific course of event has been so interwoven with non-scientific, but nevertheless related events, the authors felt necessary to include an account of this situation. Accordingly, the book is divided into five sections entitled: Stratospheric ozone Atmospheric processes influencing stratospheric ozone Does man influence stratospheric ozone Effects and research Public policy

Revenues from commodities are extremely important for Latin America and the Caribbean, yet there is very little literature on the structure of these industries and on the various ways in which the state obtains commodity revenues. This book aims to understand the trade-off between the degree of taxation overall, the profitability of the relevant industry and the amount of investment and subsequent production in the region, as well as the relevance of institutions in the performance of the sector. This volume focuses on economic efficiency: where Latin America stands in terms of the current tax system for the extractive sector; how policies have changed in this regard; and how policies may be improved. The Economics of Natural Resources in Latin America is timely, since this new era of lower and volatile prices and possible reconfiguration of investment flows poses a challenge to natural resource tax systems in the world. The argument of the book will be made by a collection of papers around the issue of tax efficiency in the region and concludes with chapters on institutions and the role of transparency. This book shows that there are varieties of experiences in resource taxation and management of revenues in Latin America that could be used to shape policy interventions in other regions. This variety is not only related to their diverse impact on welfare, but also on the policy challenges faced by the countries in the region. This volume is well suited for those who study and find interest in development economics, political economy and public finance, as well as policy

Racial minorities in the United States are disproportionately exposed to toxic wastes and other environmental hazards, and cleanup efforts in their communities are slower and less thorough than efforts elsewhere. Internationally, wealthy countries of the North increasingly ship hazardous wastes to poorer countries of the South, resulting in such tragedies as the disaster at Bhopal. Through case studies that highlight the type of information that is seldom reported in the news, Faces of Environmental Racism exposes the type and magnitude of environmental racism, both domestic and international. The essays explore the justice of current environmental practices, asking such questions as whether cost-benefit analysis is an appropriate analytic technique and whether there are alternate routes to sustainable development in the South.

Environmental Impact Assessment: Theory and Practice describes the various pieces of knowledge necessary to speak the language of EIA and carry out EIAs focusing on a variety of environmental issues, including impacts on environmental components, like air, water, soils, land, noise and biological environments. Organized into 15 chapters, the book provides engineers with the tools and methods to conduct an effective assessment, including report preparations, design measures and relevant mitigation steps that can be taken to reduce or avoid negative effects. Case Studies are presented, providing guidance professionals can use to better understand, plan and prepare environmental impact assessments.

We stand on the threshold of a "post-growth" world - one in which the relentless pursuit of economic growth has ceased to constitute a credible societal project. The symptoms that mark the end of an era are clear and incontrovertible: a return to the regularities of the past is illusory. The pursuit of economic growth no longer constitutes a credible societal project for ecological, social, and geopolitical reasons. Edited by an impressive array of experts, this book identifies several areas in which we must fundamentally rethink our societal organisation. They ask what it means to abandon the objective of economic growth; how we can encourage the emergence of other visions to guide society; how global visions and local transition initiatives should be connected; which modes of governance should be associated with the required social and technological innovations. Alongside the necessary respect of ecological limits and equity in distribution, the promotion of autonomy (involving all in the building of socio-political norms) could serve for guidance. The topics addressed over the chapters range from the future of work to the de-commodification of economic relations; the search for new indicators of progress to decentralized modes of governance; and from the circular economy to polycentric transitions. Each contribution brings a unique perspective, a piece of a larger puzzle to be assembled. Post-growth Economics and Society is an important volume to those who study ecological economics, political economy and the environment and society. It invites theorists as much as practitioners to re-explore the roots of our societal goals and play an active role in the systemic shift to come.

Shortlisted for the Financial Times and McKinsey Business Book of the Year Award, and one of The Observer's 'Thirty books to help us understand the world'. Are we really to blame for the climate crisis? Over 70 per cent of global emissions come from the same 100 organisations, but fossil-fuel companies have taken no responsibility themselves. Instead, they have waged a 30-year campaign to blame individuals. The result has been disastrous for our planet. In The New Climate War, renowned scientist Michael E. Mann argues that all is not lost. He draws the battle lines between the people and the polluters - fossil-fuel companies, right-wing plutocrats, and petro-states - and outlines a plan for forcing our governments and corporations to wake up and make real change.

Access to new sources of energy and their efficient conversion to provide useful work have been key drivers of economic growth since the industrial revolution. Western countries now need to transform their energy systems and move away from the single-minded pursuit of economic growth in order to reduce our carbon emissions, and to allow the environmental space for other countries to develop in a more sustainable way. Achieving this requires understanding of the dynamics of economic and industrial change with appreciation of the dependence of economies on ecological systems. Energy and Economic Growth thus examines the links between three issues: history of energy sources, technologies and uses; ecological challenges associated with the current dominant economic growth paradigm; and the future low carbon energy transition to mitigate human-induced climate change. Providing a historical understanding of the relevant connections between physical, social and economic changes, the book enables the reader to better understand the connection between their own energy use and global economic and environmental systems, and to be able to ask the right questions of our political and business leaders. This is a valuable resource for students, scholars and policy makers with an interest in energy, climate change and economic thinking.

Access to new sources of energy and their efficient conversion to provide useful work have been key drivers of economic growth since the industrial revolution. Western countries now need to transform their energy systems and move away from the single-minded pursuit of economic growth in order to reduce our carbon emissions, and to allow the environmental space for other countries to develop in a more sustainable way. Achieving this requires understanding of the dynamics of economic and industrial change with appreciation of the dependence of economies on ecological systems. Energy and Economic Growth thus examines the links between three issues: history of energy sources, technologies and uses; ecological challenges associated with the current dominant economic growth paradigm; and the future low carbon energy transition to mitigate human-induced climate change. Providing a historical understanding of the relevant connections between physical, social and economic changes, the book enables the reader to better understand the connection between their own energy use and global economic and environmental systems, and to be able to ask the right questions of our political and business leaders. This is a valuable resource for students, scholars and policy makers with an interest in energy, climate change and economic thinking.

Intuitive ideas of stability in dynamics of a biological population, community, or ecosystem can be formalized in the framework of corresponding mathematical models. These are often represented by systems of ordinary differential equations or difference equations. Matrices and Graphs covers achievements in the field using concepts from matrix theory and graph theory. The book effectively surveys applications of mathematical results pertinent to issues of theoretical and applied ecology. The only mathematical prerequisite for using Matrices and Graphs is a working knowledge of linear algebra and matrices. The book is ideal for biomathematicians, ecologists, and applied mathematicians doing research on dynamic behavior of model populations and communities consisting of multi-component systems. It will also be valuable as a text for a graduate-level topics course in applied math or mathematical ecology.

Climate Liberalism examines the potential and limitations of classical-liberal approaches to pollution control and climate change. Some successful environmental strategies, such as the use of catch-shares for fisheries, instream water rights, and tradable emission permits, draw heavily upon the classical liberal intellectual tradition and its emphasis on property rights and competitive markets. This intellectual tradition has been less helpful, to date, in the development or design of climate change policies. Climate Liberalism aims to help fill the gap in the academic literature examining the extent to which classical-liberal principles, including an emphasis on property rights, decentralized authority and dynamic markets, can inform the debate over climate-change policies. The contributors in this book approach the topic from a range of perspectives and represent multiple academic disciplines. Chapters consider the role of property rights and common-law legal systems in controlling pollution, the extent to which competitive markets backed by legal rules encourage risk minimization and adaptation, and how to identify the sorts of policy interventions that may help address climate change in ways that are consistent with liberal values.

This book is a remarkable case study of an environmental policy initiative for a national environmental regulatory system in the information age. In 1995 the Indonesian Ministry of Environment took the bold step to launch an environmental disclosure initiative called the Program for Pollution Control, Evaluation and Rating (PROPER). Under PROPER, environmental performance of companies is mapped into a five-color grading scale - Gold for excellent, Green for very good, Blue for good, Red for non-compliance, and Black for causing environmental damage. These ratings are then publicly disclosed through a formal press conference and posted on the internet. Not only did this simple rating scheme create a major media buzz and enhanced environmental awareness of the general public, but it also unleashed a wide range of performance incentives that showed how markets with environmental information could function in a developing country setting. The authors provide a multidisciplinary analysis of how the PROPER program harnessed the power of public disclosure to abate the problem of industrial pollution. They describe how the program has successfully improved the average environmental compliance rate from close to thrity per cent in 1995 to as high as seventy per cent in 2011. This improvement was driven primarily by information disclosure, which avoided expensive and unpredictable legal enforcement through the court system of Indonesia. The combination of institutional history and detailed economic and analyses sheds light on the role of policy entrepreneurs who laid the foundation for disclosure and transparency, despite the constraints of the Suharto regime. The PROPER program is now internationally recognized and continues to serve as a model for many developing countries.

Water scarcity is an increasing problem in many parts of the world, yet conventional supply-side economics and management are insufficient to deal with it. In this book the role of water trading as an instrument of integrated water resources management is explored in depth. It is also shown to be an instrument for conflict resolution, where it may be necessary to reallocate water in the context of increasing scarcity. Recent experiences of implementation in different river basins have shown their potential as instruments for improving allocation. These experiences, however, also show that there are implementation challenges and some limitations to trading that need to be considered. This book explores the various types of water trading formulas through the experience of using them in different parts of the world. The final result is varied because, in most cases, trading is conditioned by the legal and institutional framework in which the transactions are carried out. The role of government and the definition of water rights and licenses are critical for the success of water trading. The book studies the institutional framework and how transactions have been undertaken, drawing some lessons on how trading can improve. It also analyses whether trading has really been a positive instrument to manage scarcity and improve water ecosystems and pollution emission problems in those parts of the world which are most affected. The book concludes by making policy proposals to improve the implementation of water trading.

International climate change policy can be broadly divided into two periods: A first period, where a broad consensus was reached to tackle the risk of global warming in a coordinated global effort, and a second period, where this consensus was finally framed into a concrete policy. The first period started at the "Earth Summit" of Rio de Janeiro in 1992, where the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) was opened for signature. The UNFCCC was subsequently signed and ratified by 174 countries, making it one of the most accepted international rd treaties ever. The second period was initiated at the 3 Conference of the Parties (COP3) to the UNFCCC in Kyoto in 1997, which produced the Kyoto Protocol (KP). Till now, eighty-four countries have signed the Kyoto Protocol, but only twelve ratified it. A major reason for this slow ratification is that most operational details of the Kyoto Protocol were not decided in Kyoto but deferred to following conferences. This deferral of the details, while probably appropriate to initially reach an agreement, is a major stepping stone for a speedy ratification of the protocol. National policy makers and their constituencies, who would ultimately bear the cost of Kyoto, are generally not prepared to ratify a treaty that could mean anything, from an unsustainable strict regime of international control of greenhouse gases (GHGs) to an "L-regime" ofloopholes, or from a pure market-based international carbon trading to a regime of huge international carbon tax funds.