This thesis addresses karst development in a terrain characterized by a highly complex geological and geomorphological evolution. It tackles the extent and complexity of both epigenic and hypogenic karst development, based on morphological analyses of caves, combined with analyses and datations of cave sediments and their correlation to regional geological and geomorphological evolution. Hypogenic karst registered is mainly the result of hydrothermal speleogenesis due to increased geothermal gradient in connection with nearby Pliocene-Pleistocene volcanic centers, with occurrence of sulfuric acid speleogenesis and ghost-rock weathering due to local geological or lithological control. Epigenic speleogenesis is strongly controlled by base level oscillations, with also examples of deep phreatic (now fossil) caves connected to regional base level rise, and per-ascensum speleogenesis. Another important finding is the constraining of the timing of Mariovo Lake draining in the Pleistocene, an important event in order to understand the geomorphological evolution in Macedonia, as it led to the onset of fluvial development and incision of valleys, shaping most of the present morphology.

These proceedings comprise the peer-reviewed contributions submitted to the 11th International Congress for Applied Mineralogy (ICAM) held July 5-10, 2013, at the Southwest University of Science and Technology (SWUST) in Mianyang, China. The biennial ICAM is the most important gathering of applied mineralogists, organized every other year by the ICAM-Council. The multidisciplinary research presented in this book will be of interest to scientists and professionals dealing with topics like environmental and medical mineralogy; industrial minerals; bio-minerals and biomaterials; advanced materials; process mineralogy; mining and metallurgy; cultural heritage; the interaction of minerals with microorganisms; and solid waste treatment and recycling, including genetic mineralogy. "The field of applied mineralogy has been able to match society's pace by continuously reinventing itself, quickly adopting new technologies and instrumentation as they became available and putting them to work for the service of mankind living in a world that heavily relies on minerals. Over the past few decades, applied mineralogy has evolved into a cutting- edge discipline that leads the way for science, engineering and research and development to benefit society. Contrary to popular belief, mineral resources are limited, and we have an obligation to our heirs to use them responsibly." Dr. Maarten A.T.M. Broekmans Post-President ICAM Council

Irregular engineering structures are subjected to complicated additional loads which are often beyond conventional design models developed for traditional, simplified plane models. This book covers detailed research and recent progress in seismic engineering dealing with seismic behaviour of irregular and set-back engineering structures. Experimental results as well as special topics of modern design are discussed in detail. In addition, recent progress in seismology, wave propagation and seismic engineering, which provides novel, modern modelling of complex seismic loads, is reported. Particular emphasis is placed on the newly developed rotational, seismic ground-motion effects. This book is a continuation of an earlier monograph which appeared in the same Springer series in 2013 (http://www.springer.com/gp/book/9789400753761).

The shock waves produced by meteorite impacts give rise not only to the obvious craters seen on planets and their satellites but also to subtle effects seen only with chemical and petrographic examination of the shocked material. Shock waves in the interplanetary and interstellar medium play an important role in the formation of stars and planets, including the solar system. They also produce important chemical effects in interstellar clouds of dust and gas, --- including the production of rather complex organic molecules. This volume is concerned primarily with the chemical and physical effects of shock waves on typical Earth and planetary solid materials. The emphasis is on comparing naturally occurring materials with similar materials produced by shock compression in the laboratory. Such comparisons can provide clues about the environment and events that produced the natural materials. The chapters in the book deal with three main topics: * methods used to investigate the effects of shock on recovered minerals and rocks * effects of shock on carbon and hydrocarbons * subtle effects of shocks on geochemistry, such as shock induced redistribution of lead isotopes, the effect of the great impact at the end of the Cretaceous on atmospheric SO2 and CO2, and effect of shocks on ices.

Mass movement of rocks in high mountains can severely injure the population and damage man-made structures in these areas. This book focuses on the understanding of the mechanisms of rockslides and rockfalls using a quantitative approach. The range and velocity of these hazards are calculated to serve as a basis for evacuations and other preventive measures. Examples from four continents illustrate the necessity of this kind of information. The book contains a wealth of information for practitioners and scientists working in the field of catastrophe prevention.

These proceedings include most of the available information on this major seismic event and its consequences. With an estimated moment magnitude of 7.7 and a heavy toll in terms of human and economic losses, it ranks as the largest intermediate-depth earthquake in Europe in the twentieth century. Nevertheless, because of the difficult conditions in the 1940s, the lessons learnt after the Vrancea earthquake were not extensively shared with the international scientific community and thus, this book fills a gap in the literature discussing the knowledge acquired after major disasters. Past experience together with current understanding of the 1940 Vrancea earthquake are presented along with the latest information on Romanian seismicity, seismic hazard and risk assessment, and seismic evaluation and rehabilitation of buildings and structures. Moreover, it includes excerpts from Romanian post-disaster reports and textbooks concerning the earthquake.

Submarine mass movements represent major offshore geohazards due to their destructive and tsunami-generation potential. This potential poses a threat to human life as well as to coastal, nearshore and offshore engineering structures. Recent examples of catastrophic submarine landslide events that affected human populations (including tsunamis) are numerous; e.g., Nice airport in 1979, Papua-New Guinea in 1998, Stromboli in 2002, Finneidfjord in 1996, and the 2006 and 2009 failures in the submarine cable network around Taiwan. The Great East Japan Earthquake in March 2011 also generated submarine landslides that may have amplified effects of the devastating tsunami. Given that 30% of the World 's population live within 60 km of the coast, the hazard posed by submarine landslides is expected to grow as global sea level rises. This elevated awareness of the need for better understanding of underwater landslides is coupled with great advances in underwater mapping, sampling and monitoring technologies, laboratory analogue and numerical modeling capabilities developed over the past two decades. Multibeam sonar, 3D seismic reflection, and remote and autonomous underwater vehicle technologies provide hitherto unparalleled imagery of the geology beneath the oceans, permitting investigation of submarine landslide deposits in great detail. Increased and new access to drilling, coring, in situ measurements and monitoring devices allows for ground-thruthing geophysical data, provides access to samples for geotechnical laboratory experiments and unprecedented in situ information on strength and effective stress conditions of underwater slopes susceptible to fail. Great advances in numerical simulation of submarine landslide kinematics and tsunami propagation, particularly since the 2004 Sumatra tsunami, have also lead to increased understanding and predictability of submarine landslide consequences.
This volume consists of the latest scientific research by international experts in geological, geophysical, engineering and environmental aspects of submarine mass failure, focused on understanding the full spectrum of challenges presented by submarine mass movements and their consequences.

Soil enzymes play a fundamental role in many soil processes such as the mineralization of organic matter, the synthesis of humic substances, the degradation of xenobiotics or the mechanisms involved in the biocontrol of plant pathogens. Their direct link with soil microorganisms gives them a key role as biomonitors of the evolution of soil quality or in the monitoring of the application of organic amendments to degraded soils. As a consequence of the importance of soil enzymes on soil processes, there is an increasing interest in their study, as well as in the application of molecular techniques as diagnostic tools.

This is a synthesis of several studies on fluxes of carbon, water and energy conducted in a range of European forests encompassing different climates, soils and biomes. The volume covers methodological issues, particularly the eddy covariance technique describing its limitations and practical use. Further, major insights in ecosystem processes gained through investigations in evergreen coniferous, mediterranean and broad-leaved forests are presented. In an integrated effort, atmospheric physicists, ecologists, ecosystem modellers, and remote sensing scientists elucidate the impact of terrestrial ecosystems on the global biogeochemistry of the earth.

Jesuits established a large number of astronomical, geophysical and meteorological observatories during the 17th and 18th centuries and again during the 19th and 20th centuries throughout the world. The history of these observatories has never been published in a complete form. Many early European astronomical observatories were established in Jesuit colleges.
During the 17th and 18th centuries Jesuits were the first western scientists to enter into contact with China and India. It was through them that western astronomy was first introduced in these countries. They made early astronomical observations in India and China and they directed for 150 years the Imperial Observatory of Beijing.
In the 19th and 20th centuries a new set of observatories were established. Besides astronomy these now included meteorology and geophysics. Jesuits established some of the earliest observatories in Africa, South America and the Far East.
Jesuit observatories constitute an often forgotten chapter of the history of these sciences.

Agronomic crops have been a source of foods, beverages, fodders, fuels, medicines and industrial raw materials since the dawn of human civilization. Over time, these crops have come to be cultivated using scientific methods instead of traditional methods. However, in the era of climate change, agronomic crops are increasingly subjected to various environmental stresses, which results in substantial yield loss. To meet the food demands of the ever-increasing global population, new technologies and management practices are being adopted to boost yield and maintain productivity under both normal and adverse conditions. To promote the sustainable production of agronomic crops, scientists are currently exploring a range of approaches, which include varietal development, soil management, nutrient and water management, pest management etc. Researchers have also made remarkable progress in developing stress tolerance in crops through various approaches. However, finding solutions to meet the growing food demands remains a challenge. Although there are several research publications on the above-mentioned problems, there are virtually no comprehensive books addressing all of the recent topics. Accordingly, this book, which covers all aspects of production technologies, management practices, and stress tolerance of agronomic crops in a single source, offers a highly topical guide.

This book presents advanced ecological techniques for crop cultivation and the chapters are arranged into four sections, namely general aspects, weeds, fungi, worms and microbes. Biocontrol is an ecological method of controlling pests such as insects, mites, weeds and plant diseases using other organisms. This practice has been used for centuries. Biocontrol relies on predation, parasitism, herbivory, or other natural mechanisms. Natural enemies of insect pests, also known as biological control agents, include predators, parasitoids, pathogens, and competitors.

This book focuses on sediments as a pollutant in natural freshwater and marine habitats, and as a vector for the transfer of chemicals such as nutrients and contaminants. Sediment-water research is carried out all over the world within a variety of disciplines. The selected papers cover three main topics: - assessment and/or restoration of disturbed watersheds;- sediment-water linkages in terrestrial and aquatic environments;- evaluation of sediment and ecological changes in marine and freshwater habitats.Innovative research in both developed and less developed countries is included and both fundamental research and insight into applied research and system management are covered

This monograph examines the mineralogy of illite, the most common clay mineral, as a unifying theme for understanding problems of the surface environment and environmental change. The volume begins with a careful analysis of the structure and transformation of illite. Using illite as the frame, the authors describe problems in soil chemistry, clay stability and clay kinetics in sedimentary rocks.

This book is a practical guide to downhole rock sampling and coring concepts, methods, systems, and procedures for practitioners and researchers. Its chapters are based upon years of extensive studies and research about the coring methods and via direct and continuous communication and consultation obtained from various service and operator companies such as Baker Hughes GE, NOV, OMV, and Sandvik. The contributors discuss the state-of-the-art coring methods and systems (mainly used in the petroleum industry), which include: * conventional coring; * wireline continuous coring; * invasion mitigation coring (low invasion, gel coring, sponge coring); * jam-detection, anti-jamming, full closure; * safe-coring and tripping; * oriented-coring; * pressure/in-situ coring; * logging-while-coring; * motor coring; * mini-coring; * coiled Tubing Coring; and * underbalanced coring. The contributors provide practical and applicable understanding of the procedures of these coring methods and systems, as well as the specific core barrel components, working mechanisms, and schematics of the tools and processes used. Because Coring Methods and Systems analyses and compares the core barrels used in both petroleum and mining industries, it enhances the communication and may allow knowledge transfer between the two industries. As core damage is a serious issue during coring and handling jeopardizing correct calibration of exploration data, Coring Methods and Systems has greatly focused on its identification and its mitigation. Therefore, it can be used as an ideal source for geologists, core analysts, and reservoir engineers, to ensure the retrieval of high-quality cores.

This book covers the entire spectrum of mineralogy and consolidates its applications in various fields. Its starts (Part I) with the very basic concept of mineralogy describing in detail the implications of the various aspects of mineral chemistry, crystallographic structures and their effects producing different mineral properties. Part II of the book describes different aspects of mineralogy used to extend the studies of geothermobarometry, mineral thermodynamics and phase diagrams, mineral exploration and analysis, including some aspects of marine minerals etc. The book finally handles the applications in industrial, medicinal and environmental mineralogy along with precious semiprecious stone studies. The various analytical techniques, their significance in handling specific types of mineralogical problems are also well covered.

Nominated by Tsinghua University as an outstanding Ph.D. thesis, this book investigates the mechanical properties of unsaturated compacted clayey soil, the multi-field coupling consolidation theory of unsaturated soil and its application to a 261.5 m high earth-rockfill dam. It proposes a multi-field coupling analysis method of consolidation, and develops an efficient and practical finite element (FE) program for large-scale complex earth-rockfill dams. The book is primarily intended for researchers studying the multi-field coupling analysis of seepage consolidation.

The term Little Ice Age' was originally used by glaciologists to describe the most recent major glacial advance of the Holocene. Subsequently, the Little Ice Age' has come to be associated with a period of advances of European glaciers between about 1450 to 1850, as well as with relatively cooler temperatures. The issue of whether or not this concept remains accurate is a major theme of many of the papers included in this volume. The main geographical focus is on the North Atlantic and European sectors, and includes research from a number of different palaeoclimatic fields. Examples are the use of documentary sources, early instrumental records, grain-harvest data, fossil-insect data, ice-core records, glacial evidence, lichenometry, synoptic climatology, and also the human dimensions of climate change. The papers presented reflect state-of-the-art knowledge, as well as thought-provoking new insights into these subject areas. The book will be of value to all those interested in the above topics and in the overall themes of climate variability and global change.

This book explores the latest advances in our understanding of the evolution of the Ganga-Brahmaputra delta, examining the Damodar basin, Bhagirathi-Hooghly basin and Jalangi basin from historical, quantitative and applied geomorphology perspectives. The evolution of the Ganga-Brahmaputra delta is highly complex and remains poorly understood. To address that gap, this edited volume presents 11 research papers: the first seven chapters focus on the pure geomorphology and geohydrology of the delta, while the remaining four examine its applied geomorphological aspects. The book offers a valuable guide for geologists, geographers, hydrologists, landscape ecologists, environmentalists, engineers, planners and policy makers.

Land use decisions in karst terrains can have immediate and serious impacts on the local landscape and groundwater resources. The existing literature on karst and land use can be very difficult to locate in the journals of any of a half-dozen different disciplines. This book brings the interdisciplinary knowledge together in one place, in a format that academics and professionals alike will find accessible, informative and useful.

Based on an examination of existing regulations, the experiences and opinions of planners and land use professionals, and quantitative analysis of publicly-available data, the book explores how human settlement patterns and urban systems in karst terrains are affected by land use regulations intended to protect karst resources. The book pays particular attention to the questions of whether these regulations will have a noticeable impact on density and on opportunities for economic growth and development in communities that choose to implement them. This analysis serves as the basis for a regulatory framework that may be used to understand the workings of land use regulations in karst terrains, and to aid in the development of such regulations in the future.

Most of the Earth's biosphere is characterized by low temperatures. Vast areas (>20%) of the soil ecosystem are permanently frozen or are unfrozen for only a few weeks in summer. Permafrost regions occur at high latitudes and also at high ele- tions; a significant part of the global permafrost area is represented by mountains. Permafrost soils are of global interest, since a significant increase in temperature is predicted for polar regions. Global warming will have a great impact on these soils, especially in northern regions, since they contain large amounts of organic carbon and act as carbon sinks, and a temperature increase will result in a release of carbon into the atmosphere. Additionally, the intensified release of the clima- relevant tracer gas methane represents a potential environmental harzard. Significant numbers of viable microorganisms, including bacteria, archaea, p- totrophic cyanobacteria and green algae, fungi and protozoa, are present in per- frost, and the characteristics of these microorganisms reflect the unique and extreme conditions of the permafrost environment. Remarkably, these microorg- isms have been reported to be metabolically active at subzero temperatures, even down to ?20 DegreesC.

Morgan discusses the origin of the emerald, its peculiar structure, and its strange allure. The story weaves across several continents and thousands of years. It is a tale of conquistadors, treachery, shipwrecks, and alchemy. Along the way, we meet scientists and kings and bear witness as the great emeralds are born, mined, smuggled, cut, and sold. The book also discusses the modern art of making synthetic emeralds. From the fastnesses of Afghanistan to the steamy jungles of Colombia and Zimbabwe, from the sands of Egypt to the bitter Urals, this is the story of a stone whose strange journey reflects the yearnings, greed, passions, and longing for beauty of the human race.

Carbon Sequestration in Forest Ecosystems is a comprehensive book describing the basic processes of carbon dynamics in forest ecosystems, their contribution to carbon sequestration and implications for mitigating abrupt climate change. This book provides the information on processes, factors and causes influencing carbon sequestration in forest ecosystems. Drawing upon most up-to-date references, this book summarizes the current understanding of carbon sequestration processes in forest ecosystems while identifying knowledge gaps for future research, Thus, this book is a valuable knowledge source for students, scientists, forest managers and policy makers.