The Handbook of Reading Research is the research Handbook for the field. Each volume has come to define the field for the period of time it covers. Volume IV follows in this tradition. The editors extensively reviewed the reading research literature since the publication of Volume III in 2000, as portrayed in a wide array of research and practitioner-based journals and books, to identify the themes and topics covered. As in previous volumes, the focus is on reading research, rather than a range of literate practices. When taken as a set, the four volumes provide a definitive history of reading research. Volume IV brings the field authoritatively and comprehensively up-to-date.

With contributions from leading international researchers, Contemporary Perspectives on Reading and Spelling offers a critique of current thinking on the research literature into reading, reading comprehension and writing. Each paper in this volume provides an account of empirical research that challenges aspects of accepted models and widely accepted theories about reading and spelling.

This book develops the argument for a need to incorporate less widely cited research into popular accounts of written language development and disability, challenging the idea that the development of a universal theory of written language development is attainable. The arguments within the book are explored in three parts:

• overarching debates in reading and spelling
• reading and spelling across languages
• written language difficulties and approaches to teaching.

Opening up the existing debates, and incorporating psychological theory and the politics surrounding the teaching and learning of reading and spelling, this edited collection offers some challenging points for reflection about how the discipline of psychology as a whole approaches the study of written language skills.

Highlighting ground-breaking new perspectives, this book forms essential reading for all researchers and practitioners with a focus on the development of reading and spelling skills.

With contributions from leading international researchers, Contemporary Perspectives on Reading and Spelling offers a critique of current thinking on the research literature into reading, reading comprehension and writing. Each paper in this volume provides an account of empirical research that challenges aspects of accepted models and widely accepted theories about reading and spelling.

This book develops the argument for a need to incorporate less widely cited research into popular accounts of written language development and disability, challenging the idea that the development of a universal theory of written language development is attainable. The arguments within the book are explored in three parts:

• overarching debates in reading and spelling
• reading and spelling across languages
• written language difficulties and approaches to teaching.

Opening up the existing debates, and incorporating psychological theory and the politics surrounding the teaching and learning of reading and spelling, this edited collection offers some challenging points for reflection about how the discipline of psychology as a whole approaches the study of written language skills.

Highlighting ground-breaking new perspectives, this book forms essential reading for all researchers and practitioners with a focus on the development of reading and spelling skills.

For two decades, Speech to Print has been a bestselling, widely adopted textbook on explicit, high-quality literacy instruction. Now the anticipated third edition is here, fully updated with ten years of new research, a complete package of supporting materials, and expanded guidance on the how of assessment and instruction in today's classrooms. Filling a critical gap in teacher preparation courses, Speech to Print supplies K-12 educators with in-depth knowledge of the structure and function of language—fundamentals they need to deliver successful structured literacy instruction. Renowned literacy expert Louisa Cook Moats gives current and future teachers comprehensive, accurate, and accessible information on the underpinnings of language instruction, including: - the history of the English language and its effect on spelling - English phonology, including speech sounds and their distinctive features - how print represents speech in English - the morphological aspects of words - syntax and its instruction - how meaning is conveyed with language Through case studies, activities, recommended teaching principles, and close analysis of real-world student work samples, teachers will also receive invaluable insight into how their students should be taught. Ideal for use in pre-service courses and in-service professional development sessions, this essential textbook will give educators the strong foundation they need to teach language and reading skills to students with and without disabilities. WHAT'S NEW: - New and expanded practical content on the how of language and reading instruction - New and updated chapter exercises - New faculty support materials - More on key topics like program and curricula selection, frameworks for instructional planning, and problem solving when students are slow to respond to intervention - More accessible, undergraduate-friendly tone and structure - Additional graphics to illustrate key concepts

This book provides research-based insights that deepen and broaden current understandings of the nature of reading. Informed by psycholinguistic and sociolinguistic views of reading-as-meaning-construction, the studies build on principles of "scientific realism"--an approach to inquiry that incorporates and values a wide variety of methods of observation to find the most inclusive, ecologically valid description of the reading processes as it is observed in a variety of contexts from a wide range of perspectives.
Focusing on how facts are discovered, developed, and used in the construction of knowledge about reading--a data-driven and theory-driven construction that results from observing the reading process with a variety of tools, methods, disciplines, and conceptual frameworks--scientific realism goes beyond rationalism and experimentation to include studies of events and experiences, but still satisfies even the most narrow definitions of what state andnational lawmakers refer to as "reliable and replicable research on reading." Each study in this volume breaks ground for a new line of reading research underpinned by the theory of reading based in scientific realism.
"Scientific Realism in Studies of Reading" is directed to reading researchers, teacher educators, reading specialists, special educators, graduate students, and related education professionals in the disciplines of applied psycholinguistics and sociolinguistics, and is appropriate as a text for advanced courses in these areas.

This book provides research-based insights that deepen and broaden current understandings of the nature of reading. Informed by psycholinguistic and sociolinguistic views of reading-as-meaning-construction, the studies build on principles of "scientific realism"--an approach to inquiry that incorporates and values a wide variety of methods of observation to find the most inclusive, ecologically valid description of the reading processes as it is observed in a variety of contexts from a wide range of perspectives.
Focusing on how facts are discovered, developed, and used in the construction of knowledge about reading--a data-driven and theory-driven construction that results from observing the reading process with a variety of tools, methods, disciplines, and conceptual frameworks--scientific realism goes beyond rationalism and experimentation to include studies of events and experiences, but still satisfies even the most narrow definitions of what state andnational lawmakers refer to as "reliable and replicable research on reading." Each study in this volume breaks ground for a new line of reading research underpinned by the theory of reading based in scientific realism.
"Scientific Realism in Studies of Reading" is directed to reading researchers, teacher educators, reading specialists, special educators, graduate students, and related education professionals in the disciplines of applied psycholinguistics and sociolinguistics, and is appropriate as a text for advanced courses in these areas.

This book systematically examines how learning to read occurs in diverse languages, and in so doing, explores how literacy is learned in a second language by learners who have achieved at least basic reading skills in their first language. As a consequence of rapid globalization, such learners are a large and growing segment of the school population worldwide, and an increasing number of schools are challenged by learners from a wide variety of languages, and with distinct prior literacy experiences. To succeed academically these learners must develop second-language literacy skills, yet little is known about the ways in which they learn to read in their first languages, and even less about how the specific nature and level of their first-language literacy affects second-language reading development.

This volume provides detailed descriptions of five typologically diverse languages and their writing systems, and offers comparisons of learning-to-read experiences in these languages. Specifically, it addresses the requisite competencies in learning to read in each of the languages, how language and writing system properties affect the way children learn to read, and the extent and ways in which literacy learning experience in one language can play a role in subsequent reading development in another. Both common and distinct aspects of literacy learning experiences across languages are identified, thus establishing a basis for determining which skills are available for transfer in second-language reading development.

Learning to Read Across Languages is intended for researchers and advanced students in the areas of second-language learning, psycholinguistics, literacy, bilingualism, and cross-linguistic issues in language processing.

As the first title in the new series, "New Directions in Communication Disorders Research: Integrative Approaches," this volume discusses a unique phenomenon in cognitive science--single-word reading--which is an essential element in successful reading competence. Single-word reading is an interdisciplinary area of research that incorporates phonological, orthographic, graphemic, and semantic information in the representations suitable for the task demands of reading. Editors Elena L. Grigorenko and Adam J. Naples have organized a collection of essays written by an outstanding group of scholars in order to systematically sample research on this important topic, as well as to describe the research within different experimental paradigms.
"Single-Word Reading "provides an introduction to unfamiliar areas of research, and is an inspiration for future study. The introductory chapter sets up a contextual stage for connections between spoken and written word processing, the stage-based nature of their development, and the role of education. Succeeding chapters address visual word processing; the role of morphology in word recognition; the role of lexical representation; the biological bases of single-word reading and related processes; and more.
Reading researchers will take interest in this substantial book, as will professionals and practitioners linked to the teaching of reading in the departments of school psychology, special education, communication disorders, neuroscience, cognitive science, linguistics, and reading.

It’s not easy for teachers to hold the attention of today’s junior high students! They’re easily distracted and lose interest quickly. Here’s a reading curriculum designed to challenge them to think. Written by an experienced reading teacher and workshop leader, it features 45 high-interest lessons on topics like jeans (The Never-Fading Popularity of Levi’s® Jeans) and Buying Your First Car. You’ll find 15 story lessons and activities, all printed in a big 8-1/4" x 11" spiral-bound format for easy photocopying. Each story includes a brief overview of the story’s topic…a word list to introduce unfamiliar words…recommended books, videos, CDs, records, and cassettes related to the subject…crafts, projects, role-playing, games, and other activities that tie into the story…reproducible comprehension questions…and extension activities such as plays, projects, and other activities to allow students to experience the subject beyond the story. This comprehension program poses literal, fact-based questions as well as interpretive questions that ask students to draw logical conclusions based on what they’ve read. It’s flexible enough to be used effectively with poor readers, average readers, upper level readers, and special needs students in the classroom.

Over the last two decades, the study of languages and writing systems and their relationship to literacy acquisition has begun to spread beyond studies based mostly on English language learners. As the worldwide demand for literacy continues to grow, researchers from different countries with different language backgrounds have begun examining the connection between their language and writing system and literacy acquisition. This volume is part of this new, emerging field of research. In addition to reviewing psychological research on reading (the author's specialty), the reader is introduced to the Hebrew language: its structure, its history, its writing system, and the issues involved in being fluently literate in Hebrew.
Chapters 1-4 introduce the reader to the Hebrew language and word structure and focuses on aspects of Hebrew that have been specifically researched by experimental cognitive psychologists. The reader whose only interest is in the psychological mechanisms of reading Hebrew may be satisfied with these chapters.
Chapters 5-8 briefly surveys the history of the Hebrew language and its writing system, the origin of literacy in Hebrew as one of the first alphabetic systems, and then raises questions about the viability (or possibility) of having full-scale literacy in Hebrew. Together, the two sets of chapters present the necessary background for studying the psychology of reading Hebrew and literacy in Hebrew.
This volume is appropriate for anyone interested in comparative reading and writing systems or in the Hebrew language in particular. This includes linguists, researchers, and graduate students in such diverse fields as cognitive psychology, psycholinguistics, literacy education, English as a second language, and communication disorders.

This highly practical guide shows how learning support teachers and assistants can work effectively with secondary school pupils who are struggling with their reading. It relates directly to the working practices of teachers, steering them through issues such as: assessing the low-age reader working with reading withdrawal groups finding and creating resources for low-age readers constructing spelling strategies to support reading understanding the emotional dimension to being a poor reader how to effectively involve parents. Paul Blum offers valuable advice on how to make challenging mainstream subject textbooks accessible to low-aged readers and help on where to find good free resources as well as commercial materials to suit them. Exploring the vital relationship between the mainstream and learning support function, he also outlines the ways in which the two can be harnessed to make a significant difference to reading improvement.

Barry is trying to get used to life on the outside. All he wants it to make up with his sister and lead a normal life. But with no money, no job and the local drug dealer after him, will Barry be able to keep out of trouble? Bare Freedom, is the sequel to Forty-six Quid and a Bag of Dirty Washing also by Andy Croft. SERIES INFORMATION This page-turning story is part of the Diffusion books range, written especially for teenagers and adults who want to improve their reading skills. Easy-to-read, with short chapters, the books in the series enable learners to improve their reading confidence and tackle longer stories. They are also a brilliant choice for anyone learning English as an additional language. The books also include discussion and reflection questions that help readers to understand the story and to reflect on their own lives and relationships. Buying this book will support our project to help people in prison improve both their reading skills and their life chances. To find out more visit https://spckpublishing.co.uk/diffusion-books

What do we mean when we talk about reading? What does it mean to teach reading? What place does reading have in the college writing classroom?
"Intertexts: Reading Pedagogy in College Writing Classrooms" theoretically and practically situates the teaching of reading as a common pedagogical practice in the college writing classroom. As a whole, the book argues for rethinking the separation of reading and writing within the first-year writing classroom--for an expanded notion of reading that is based on finding and creating meaning from a variety of symbolic forms, not just print-based texts but also other forms, such as Web sites and visual images. The chapter authors represent a range of cultural, personal, and rhetorical perspectives, including cultural studies, classical rhetoric, visual rhetoric, electronic literacy, reader response theory, creative writing, and critical theories of literature and literary criticism. This volume, an important contribution to composition studies, is essential reading for researchers, instructors, writing program administrators, and students involved in college writing instruction and literature.

This special issue is a snapshot of current research in this area, showing many of the issues encountered, the methods employed, and the limitations faced. All four studies involve experimental or quasi-experimental studies but all are based on participants recruited from adult literacy programs. Together these studies illuminate many of the gray areas of adult basic processing, particularly for adults in basic skills programs. They present many of the complexities of studying how literacy adults: the high percentages with learning disabilities, the differences across native and non-native English speakers and within classes of the latter, the different processing abilities of adults and children matched for reading ability, the impacts of language and orthography on reading strategies, and the importance of measure speed, as well as accuracy in studying basic processing. As such, the present studies are an indication that scientific programs exist and are at work on key issues.

An unmissable collection of eight unconventional and captivating short stories for young and adult learners of Norwegian. "Olly's top-notch language-learning insights are right in line with the best of what we know from neuroscience and cognitive psychology about how to learn effectively. I love his work - and you will too!" - Barbara Oakley, PhD, Author of New York Times bestseller A Mind for Numbers Short Stories in Norwegian for Beginners has been written especially for students from high-beginner to low-intermediate level, designed to give a sense of achievement, a feeling of progress and most importantly - enjoyment! Mapped to A2-B1 on the Common European Framework of Reference (CEFR) for languages, these eight captivating stories are designed to give you a sense of achievement and a feeling of progress when reading. What does this book give you? - Eight stories in a variety of exciting genres, from science fiction and crime to history and thriller - making reading fun, while you learn a wide range of new vocabulary -Controlled language at your level to help you progress confidently -Authentic spoken dialogues to help you learn conversational expressions and improve your speaking ability -Accessible grammar so you learn new structures naturally, in a stress-free way -Pleasure! Research shows that if you're enjoying reading in a foreign language, you won't experience the usual feelings of frustration - 'It's too hard!' 'I don't understand!' Carefully curated to make learning a new language easy, these stories include key features that will support and consolidate your progress, including: - A glossary for bolded words in each chapter - Full plot summary - A bilingual word list - Comprehension questions after each chapter. As a result, you will be able to focus on enjoying reading, delighting in your improved range of vocabulary and grasp of the language, without ever feeling overwhelmed. From science fiction to fantasy, to crime and thrillers, Short Stories in Norwegian for Beginners will make learning Norwegian easy and enjoyable.

An unmissable collection of eight unconventional and captivating short stories for young adult and adult intermediate learners of Italian. Olly's top-notch language-learning insights are right in line with the best of what we know from neuroscience and cognitive psychology about how to learn effectively. I love his work - and you will too! - Barbara Oakley, PhD, Author of New York Times bestseller A Mind for Numbers Short Stories in Italian for Intermediate Learners has been written specifically for students from a low-intermediate to intermediate level, designed to give a sense of achievement, and most importantly - enjoyment! Mapped to B1-B2 of the Common European Framework of Reference, these eight captivating stories will both entertain you, and give you a feeling of progress when reading. What does this book give you? * Eight stories in a variety of exciting genres, from science fiction and crime to history and thriller - making reading fun, while you learn a wide range of new vocabulary * Controlled language at your level to help you progress confidently * Realistic spoken dialogues to help you learn conversational expressions and improve your speaking ability * Beautiful illustrations accompanying each story, to set the scene and support your understanding * Accessible grammar so you learn new structures naturally, in a stress-free way * Pleasure! Research shows that if you're enjoying reading in a foreign language, you won't experience the usual feelings of frustration - 'It's too hard!' 'I don't understand!' With intriguing plots that will spark your imagination and keep you reading, Short Stories in Italian will take your grasp of Italian to the next level with key features to support and consolidate your progress, including: * A glossary for bolded words in each text * A bilingual word list * Full plot summary * Comprehension questions after each chapter. As a result, you will be able to focus on enjoying reading, delighting in your improved range of vocabulary and grasp of the language all without ever feeling overwhelmed. From science fiction to fantasy, to crime and thrillers, Short Stories in Italian for Intermediate Learners uses reading as the perfect tool to not only delight in learning Italian, but to accelerate your journey towards fluency.

For reading and classroom teachers in grades 5-12, here is a complete, step-by-step guide to setting up and running a successful reading workshop where reading is the priority-- all conveniently organized into two parts.

Part I, "Management of the Reading Workshop," shows how to create a reading workshop, offers specific tools and strategies for classroom management, and includes reproducible handouts. Following is a brief description of the three chapters in this section:
* An overview-- Emphasizes that through reading and responding to what is read, students communicate and share ideas while they learn skills. Reproducibles include "Elements of the Reading Workshop" and "The Role of the Teacher in the Reading Workshop."
*Management-- Covers everything from beginning your day to building a positive atmosphere and organizing discussion groups. Reproducibles include "Student Responsibilities in the Reading Workshop" and "Reading Log Guidelines."
*Evaluation-- Provides descriptions of various evaluation methods, such as portfolios, daily logs of student performance, and conferencing. Reproducibles include "Book Summary Sheet" and "Self-Evaluation Questions for Teachers."
Part II, "Using Mini-Lessons in the Reading Workshop," contains 100 different mini-lessons focusing on specific reading topics and skills. Each of the lessons stands alone, can be used in any order you wish, and is accompanied by one and sometimes two reproducibles. The lessons cover:

(1) Types of Reading and Related Topics. 50 mini-lessons feature topics such as Helping Students Select Books for Reading... The Publishing Process... Book Review... Mysteries...Mythology of NativeAmericans...Poetry of African Americans.
(2) Story Elements. 25 mini-lessons focus on story elements like What Makes a Good Lead... Motivation... Style and Tone... Symbolism... First-Person Point of View... Foreshadowing.
(3) Specific Reading Skills. 25 mini-lessons cover a wide array of reading skills, such as Identifying Fact and Opinion... Strategies for Improving Reading Comprehension... Recalling Details... Cause and Effect...Reading Test-Taking Strategies... SQ3R.

In short, the Reading Workshop Survival Kit gives you all the guidelines and tools you need to use the workshop approach effectively, plus 100 ready-to-use mini-lessons and over 120 reproducible worksheets and handouts for teaching and reinforcing specific reading skills and topics in any program.

For reading tutors, homeschoolers, and teachers, this book provides 60 ready-to-use units of phonics activities to help beginning readers of all ages learn the short vowels, long vowels, irregular vowel combinations, diphthongs, and r-controlled vowel sounds in words. Learning these vowel sounds usually follows learning the sound associations for the constant letters.

The activities are printed in a full-page format for easy use and are organized into two sections. Part One, "Long and Short Vowels," includes 151 activity pages. Part Two, "irregular Vowel Combinations, Diphthongs, and R-Controlled Vowels," includes 100 activity pages.

Each of the 60 phonics units features the following components: a phonogram or phonograms and a list of words constructed from the phonogram to be read aloud in order to establish the letter-sound relationshipan exercise to reinforce this skill in which the learner selects the one word that makes sense in each sentencea trace-say-and-copy page with space for writing the wordsactivities directly related to the words in that unit plus words from prior units to provide review and reinforcement. These includes: "reaading comprehension, decoding, encoding, rhyming words, learning new vocabulary words, alphabetizing, learning to use long and short diacritical marks, making a word from scrambled letter, making a compound word from two separate words, distinguishing the spelling and meaning of homonyms, figure-ground discrimination"a checklist of words in alphabetical order to provide further practice in word recognition and a means of evaluating the learner's progress

Other special helps in this book include additional strategies for making the processof learning to read easier and more enjoyable... a glossary of phonics... and lists of Vocabulary and Sight Words used for the activities in Parts One and Two.

Phonics Activities for Reading Success can be used as a stand-alone activities program for learning the vowel sounds or a supplement to any reading program already in place. And the activities may also be used with readers who need extra practice in mastering the sound associations for vowels.

Based on research from the National Reading Research Center (NRRC) at the Universities of Georgia and Maryland, this issue presents the contributors' sythesized work on reading motivation and engagement. Articles are devoted to the following topics: * the general motivation constructs related to reading; * home influences on reading motivation; * readers' responses to different types of text; * influences of classroom contexts; and * types of assessment on children's motivation.

This volume describes the theoretical and empirical results of a seven year collaborative effort of cognitive scientists to develop a computational model for narrative understanding. Disciplines represented include artificial intelligence, cognitive psychology, communicative disorders, education, English, geography, linguistics, and philosophy. The book argues for an organized representational system -- a Deictic Center (DC) -- which is constructed by readers from language in a text combined with their world knowledge.
As readers approach a new text they need to gather and maintain information about who the participants are and where and when the events take place. This information plays a central role in understanding the narrative. The editors claim that readers maintain this information without explicit textual reminders by including it in their mental model of the story world.
Because of the centrality of the temporal, spatial, and character information in narratives, they developed their notion of a DC as a crucial part of the reader's mental model of the narrative. The events that carry the temporal and spatial core of the narrative are linguistically and conceptually constrained according to certain principles that can be relatively well defined. A narrative obviously unfolds one word, or one sentence, at a time. This volume suggests that cognitively a narrative usually unfolds one place and time at a time. This spatio-temporal location functions as part of the DC of the narrative. It is the "here" and "now" of the reader's "mind's eye" in the world of the story.
Organized into seven parts, this book describes the goal of the cognitive science project resulting in this volume, the methodological approaches taken, and the history of the collaborative effort. It provides a historical and theoretical background underlying the DC theory, including discussions of deixis in language and the nature of fiction. It goes on to outline the computational framework and how it is used to represent deixis in narrative, and details the linguistic devices implicated in the DC theory. Other subjects covered include: crosslinguistic indicators of subjectivity, psychological investigations of the use of deixis by children and adults as they process narratives, conversation, direction giving, implications for emerging literacy, and a narrator's experience in writing a short story.

This volume describes the theoretical and empirical results of a seven year collaborative effort of cognitive scientists to develop a computational model for narrative understanding. Disciplines represented include artificial intelligence, cognitive psychology, communicative disorders, education, English, geography, linguistics, and philosophy. The book argues for an organized representational system -- a Deictic Center (DC) -- which is constructed by readers from language in a text combined with their world knowledge.
As readers approach a new text they need to gather and maintain information about who the participants are and where and when the events take place. This information plays a central role in understanding the narrative. The editors claim that readers maintain this information without explicit textual reminders by including it in their mental model of the story world.
Because of the centrality of the temporal, spatial, and character information in narratives, they developed their notion of a DC as a crucial part of the reader's mental model of the narrative. The events that carry the temporal and spatial core of the narrative are linguistically and conceptually constrained according to certain principles that can be relatively well defined. A narrative obviously unfolds one word, or one sentence, at a time. This volume suggests that cognitively a narrative usually unfolds one place and time at a time. This spatio-temporal location functions as part of the DC of the narrative. It is the "here" and "now" of the reader's "mind's eye" in the world of the story.
Organized into seven parts, this book describes the goal of the cognitive science project resulting in this volume, the methodological approaches taken, and the history of the collaborative effort. It provides a historical and theoretical background underlying the DC theory, including discussions of deixis in language and the nature of fiction. It goes on to outline the computational framework and how it is used to represent deixis in narrative, and details the linguistic devices implicated in the DC theory. Other subjects covered include: crosslinguistic indicators of subjectivity, psychological investigations of the use of deixis by children and adults as they process narratives, conversation, direction giving, implications for emerging literacy, and a narrator's experience in writing a short story.

Researchers from a variety of disciplines have collected verbal protocols of reading as a window on conscious reading processes. Because such work has occurred in different disciplines, many who have conducted verbal protocol analyses have been unaware of the research of others. This volume brings together the existing literature from the various fields in which verbal protocols of reading have been generated. In so doing, the authors provide an organized catalog of all conscious verbal processes reported in studies to date -- the most complete analysis of conscious reading now available in the literature.
When the results of all of the studies are considered, there is clear support for a number of models of reading comprehension including reader response theories, schema perspectives, executive processing models, and bottom-up approaches such as the one proposed by van Dijk and Kintsch. The summary of results also demonstrates that none of the existing models goes far enough. Thus, a new framework -- constructively responsive reading -- is described. This new model encompasses reader response, schematic and executive processing, and induction from word- and phrase-level comprehension to higher-order meaning. The important concept in this new model is that readers respond to bits and pieces of text as they are encountered, all as part of the overarching goal of constructing meaning from text.
This volume also includes a critical review of the thinking aloud methodology as it has been used thus far. This examination suggests that it continues to be an immature methodology, and that much work is needed if a complete theory of conscious processing during reading is to be developed via verbal protocol analysis. Finally, after reviewing what has been accomplished to date, the authors provide extensive discussion of the work that remains to be done and the adequacy of the verbal protocol methodology for permitting telling conclusions about text processing.