This book explores how a long-term innovation can take place based on historical analyses of the development of reverse osmosis (RO) membrane from the early 1950s to the mid-2010s. The RO membrane is a critical material for desalination that is a key to solve water shortages becoming serious in many places of the world. The authors conducted in-depth field studies as well as analyses of rich archival data to demonstrate how researchers, engineers, managers, entrepreneurs, and policymakers interacted each other for this material innovation to be realized. A series of historical analyses in this book uncovered that initial government supports, strategic niche markets, emergence of breakthrough technology, and company-specific rationales played significant roles for companies to overcome four types of uncertainty, technological, market, competition, and social/organizational ones, and enabled the companies to persistently invest in the development and commercialization of the RO membrane. This book depicts that innovation does not arise on a sudden, but that it is actualized through long lasting process with turns and twists, which is driven by many non-economic rationales beyond economic motives.

Fully updated and expanded into two volumes, the new edition of Groundwater Contamination explains in a comprehensive way the sources for groundwater contamination, the regulations governing it, and the technologies for abating it. Volume 1 covers all major contaminants and explains the hydrology and data used to determine the extent of pollution. Volume 2 discusses aquifer management, including technologies to control and stabilize multiple influxes into the water table. This volume outlines strategies for stormwater control and groundwater restoration. A number of case histories on site analysis and remediation based on DOE and state documents are included. Among the many new features of this edition are a full discussion of risk assessment, the preparation of groundwater protection plans, and references linking the text to over 2,300 water-related Web sites.

Since human beings first appeared on the earth, we have changed land cover and land use for our own purposes, such as conveniences and high productivity. As a result of the land cover and land use changes, many serious environmental problems occur on the earth. Studying meteorological and hydrological effects of vegetation and land cover/use changes helps us to understand the environmental changes and problems happening near the earth surface, because the vegetation distributes the solar energy and water on the earth surface into atmosphere and geosphere. Subsurface hydrological responses to land cover and land use changes have drawn only regional environmental concerns, although global change caused by biosphere change has been studied in various scientific fields. The changes in land cover and land use alter water, solute and heat cycles in basins and elements of those balances, including evapotranspiration, groundwater recharge rate, discharge rates into rivers or ocean and soil moisture content, which are directly or indirectly related to the global environmental issues. Therefore, the changes in biosphere may substantially alter the subsurface hydrological system. For instance, increased groundwater recharge rates following clearing forest into grasses might be one consequence resulting in rising water tables and salinization.

The applications of stochastic methods in design by reliability include the better utilisation of hydrological information. With statistical methods one can evaluate the safety component of hydraulic systems. Based on these, extra safety features can be added to ensure the reliable performance of an hydraulic system. One such example is the design of a dam, which features a number of random variables, each with a very distinct and quite different probability function. This book reports on developments in stochastic hydraulics across a wide range of applications, including river hydraulics, sediment transportation, waves and coastal processes, hydrology, hydraulic works and structure, and environmental hydraulics.

Carbonate aquifers are an important source of water throughout the world. They are complicated systems and not always easy to interpret. Caves and channels form in the rock, leading to complex flow pathways and unpredictable contaminant behaviour. This volume covers the range of techniques used to analyse groundwater flow and contaminant transport in carbonate aquifers. The book opens with a review of thoughts and methods, and continues by discussing the use of tracers, hydrograph and hydrochemograph evaluation, estimation of aquifer properties from outcrop studies, numerical simulation, analogue simulation, and 3-D visualization of conduits. Other papers address the critical evaluation of matrix, fracture and conduit components of flow and storage. An understanding of these approaches is important to engineers or hydrogeologists working in carbonate aquifers.

Seagrasses are becoming widely used as in situ indicators of the relative health and condition of subtropical and tropical estuarine ecosystems. To permit meaningful management of our estuaries, there is clearly a need to develop and refine ways of effectively monitoring and assessing seagrasses.
Seagrasses: Monitoring, Ecology, Physiology, and Management includes the peer-reviewed, written results of presentations made at a recent workshop that addressed this very issue. A total of 28 original research and review chapters are organized around four major themes: Ecology and Physiology, Monitoring and Trends, Management, and Restoration. Additional research study results, not completed at the time of the workshop, are also included as they are directly related to the topic of seagrass management ecology.
Overall, Seagrasses: Monitoring, Ecology, Physiology, and Management encompasses the latest research in seagrass management ecology to assist in the promotion of a dialogue between the research and environmental management communities. Not only will this work serve as a cornerstone for continued improvement in effectively monitoring the health and condition of near coastal waters, but also as a reference central to the premise that effective and efficient assessment of seagrasses will aid in estuarine ecosystem management.

Physical and chemical studies of the earth and planets along with their sur roundings are now developing very rapidly. As these studies are of essentially international character, many international conferences, symposia, seminars and workshops are held every year. To publish proceedings of these meetings is of course important for tracing development of various disciplines of earth and plane tary sciences though publishing is fast getting to be an expensive business. It is my pleasure to learn that the Center for Academic Publications Japan and the Japan Scientific Societies Press have agreed to undertake the publication of a series "Advances in Earth and Planetary Sciences" which should certainly become an important medium for conveying achievements of various meetings to the aca demic as well as non-academic scientific communities. It is planned to publish the series mostly on the basis of proceedings that appear in the Journal of Geomagnetism and Geoelectricity edited by the Society of Terrestrial Magnetism and Electricity of Japan, the Journal of Physics of the Earth by the Seismological Society of Japan and the Volcanological Society of Japan, and the Geochemical Journal by the Geochemical Society of Japan, although occasional volumes of the series will include independent proceedings. Selection of meetings, of which the proceedings will be included in the series, will be made by the Editorial Committee for which I have the honour to work as the General Editor."

This interdisciplinary volume reviews the roots of conflict over the Jordan between Arabs and Jews and the development of that conflict over the past 150 years, analyzing the positions of Arabs and Israelis and the role of the United States in promoting a settlement.

Science and Engineering of Freak Waves provides a holistic and interdisciplinary view of extreme ocean waves for both scientific and engineering applications. Readers will learn the fundamental theory of extreme waves and the implications they have on coastal structures and methods of prediction through chapters that review the definitions of extreme waves, their history and other important observations. After this, the book's authors describe the theory and modeling of extreme waves that occur in various situations. Final sections provide examples of the application of extreme wave research results to various engineering designs are presented. This book provides a comprehensive overview of the current status of our understandings on freak/rogue waves, the science of extreme waves, prediction, and their engineering applications. As such, it is a must read for physical oceanographers looking for a better understanding of prediction models and the history of these waves, and engineers looking for more information on preparedness and implications for offshore structures and shipping.

Thisbookfocusesonthedynamicsoftheoceanbeingin?uencedbytheEarth'sro- tion and density strati?cation. Fluids in motion are a dif?cult subject of study that traditionally requires advanced knowledge of analytical mathematics, in particularly matrix algebra, differential and integral calculus, and complex analysis. Hence, this fascinating ?eld of science, known as geophysical ?uid dynamics, is accessible only to a limited number of students - those who either are naturally geniuses or those who underwent tough years of intense University study. Fluid processes are inherently complex and analytical solutions describing ?uid dynamics exist only in a few instances and only under highly simpli?ed assu- tions. Computer-based numerical models are required to approximate ?uid beh- ior in more realistic situations. Because of its complexity, universities tend to offer subjects in computational modelling of ?uid dynamics only at postgraduate level. This is a pity given that ?uid processes are truly fascinating in nature and given that the oceans play a signi?cant role in shaping life on Earth. The approach I pursue in this book is different from the traditional approach.

Containing over one hundred and sixty line drawings, maps and one hundred tables, this book explains the fundamental hydrologic principles and favoured methods of analysis. Aimed at students interested in natural resources and environmental science, spreadsheet exercises and worked examples help to develop basic problem solving skills.

In aquatic ecosystems, the oligochaetes are often a major component of the community. Their relevance in sediment quality assessment is largely related to their benthic and detritivorous life habit. In this book, we aim to present the state of the art of Pollution Biology using oligochaete worms in laboratory and field studies. Future research will require the combination of a variety of methodological approaches and the integration of the resulting information, avoiding fragmented and often conflicting visions of the relationships of the species with their environment. Current approaches to ecotoxicology and bioaccumulation using ecological risk assessment provide the opportunity to relate community studies with probability of effects. This book addresses three main themes: Ecological and Field Studies using the composition and structure of oligochaete communities, Toxicology and Laboratory Studies, and Bioaccumulation and Trophic Transfer Studies. Two appendices list values of toxicological parameters (LC50, EC50) and several bioaccumulation variables (bioaccumulation factors, biological half-life, toxicokinetic coefficients, and critical body residues) for different oligochaete species. Additional information is provided on Methodological Issues and on the Taxonomy of several oligochaete families, with information on the most recent taxonomic debates. Each chapter includes a critical view, based on the authors experience, of a number of current issues which have been raised in the literature.

The realism of large scale numerical ocean models has improved dra matically in recent years, in part because modern computers permit a more faithful representation of the differential equations by their algebraic analogs. Equally significant, if not more so, has been the improved under standing of physical processes on space and time scales smaller than those that can be represented in such models. Today, some of the most challeng ing issues remaining in ocean modeling are associated with parameterizing the effects of these high-frequency, small-space scale processes. Accurate parameterizations are especially needed in long term integrations of coarse resolution ocean models that are designed to understand the ocean vari ability within the climate system on seasonal to decadal time scales. Traditionally, parameterizations of subgrid-scale, high-frequency mo tions in ocean modeling have been based on simple formulations, such as the Reynolds decomposition with constant diffusivity values. Until recently, modelers were concerned with first order issues such as a correct represen tation of the basic features of the ocean circulation. As the numerical simu lations become better and less dependent on the discretization choices, the focus is turning to the physics of the needed parameterizations and their numerical implementation. At the present time, the success of any large scale numerical simulation is directly dependent upon the choices that are made for the parameterization of various subgrid processes.

The Bear Brook Watershed in Maine (BBWM) is a long-term, whole-watershed study examining the effects of experimentally elevated N and S deposition on a treated watershed, in comparison to the adjacent reference watershed. The study is in a northern New England, USA, forested ecosystem, and focuses on soil and stream hydrological and biogeochemical processes, and chemical responses of vegetation. Relative to the reference watershed, the treated ecosystem has migrated biogeochemically towards N saturation, and soil and stream acidification. Some of the responses to N amendments were not expected nor predicted by available models.

This text covers the proceedings of the third International Symposium - TISAR 98, held in Amsterdam. Topics include: basin recharge; water management in arid regions; behaviour of pollutants; bank, basin, well and other types of recharge; and storage and recovery efficiency.

R. S. GOVINDARAJU and ARAMACHANDRA RAO School of Civil Engineering Purdue University West Lafayette, IN. , USA Background and Motivation The basic notion of artificial neural networks (ANNs), as we understand them today, was perhaps first formalized by McCulloch and Pitts (1943) in their model of an artificial neuron. Research in this field remained somewhat dormant in the early years, perhaps because of the limited capabilities of this method and because there was no clear indication of its potential uses. However, interest in this area picked up momentum in a dramatic fashion with the works of Hopfield (1982) and Rumelhart et al. (1986). Not only did these studies place artificial neural networks on a firmer mathematical footing, but also opened the dOOf to a host of potential applications for this computational tool. Consequently, neural network computing has progressed rapidly along all fronts: theoretical development of different learning algorithms, computing capabilities, and applications to diverse areas from neurophysiology to the stock market. . Initial studies on artificial neural networks were prompted by adesire to have computers mimic human learning. As a result, the jargon associated with the technical literature on this subject is replete with expressions such as excitation and inhibition of neurons, strength of synaptic connections, learning rates, training, and network experience. ANNs have also been referred to as neurocomputers by people who want to preserve this analogy.

Originally published in 1974, Arctic and Alpine Environments examines, the relatively simple ecosystems of arctic and alpine lands that still occupy extensive areas little disturbed by modern technology. The book argues that there is a necessity for carefully controlled development of the resources of these regions and suggests that there is a risk of irreversible disturbance without full understanding of these regions. This book provides a detailed documentation of cold-stressed arctic and alpine terrestrial environments and systematically deals with the present and past physical environment - climate, hydrology and glaciology; biota - treeline, vegetation, vertebrate zoology, and historical biogeography; abiotic processes - geomorphological and pedological and the role of man - bioclimatology, archaeology and technological impact, including radioecology. The book will appeal to academics and students of environmental and biological science, as well as providing a significant source for conservationists', government agencies and industrial organizations.

One of the basic concepts of ocean biogeochemistry is that of an ocean with extremely active boundary zones and separation boundaries of extensive biochemical interactions. The areas of these zones are characterized by a sharp decrease of element migration intensity and consequently the decrease in their concentrations gave the boundaries for the naming of the geochemical barriers (Perelman, 1972). For the purposes of biogeo chemistry the most important ones are the boundaries of separation between river-sea, ocean-atmosphere, and water-ground (Lisitzin, 1983). The most complicated of them is the river-sea boundary, where the biogeochemical processes are the most active and complicated (Monin and Romankevich, 1979, 1984). The necessity of studying organic matter in rivers, mouth regions and adjoining sea aquatories has been repeatedly pointed out by v.I. Vernadsky (1934, 1960) who noted both the importance of registration of solid and liquid run-off of rivers, coming into the sea, and "the quality and the character of those elements, which are washed-down into the sea," emphasizing that "wash-down of organic substances into the sea is of great value." The interest in studying organic matter in natural waters, including river and sea waters, has grown considerably over the last 30 years. During this period essential material was collected on the content and composition of organic matter in various types of river waters of the USSR, and this was published in papers by B.A Scopintzev, AD. Semenov, M.V."

Engineers from around the world recount in this volume their successes and failures in attempting to deal with unique and quixotic landscapes.

This book presents the study of limnogeomorphology, in which past proxy data such as lacustrine sediments with information on landform development can be linked to modern observed data acquired by instruments, including hydro-geomorphological and sedimentary data. Traditionally, in the field of earth sciences, it has been thought that geophysical studies dealing mainly with the present process were not smoothly linked to geological studies that originated from historical studies. Although such earth-surface process studies are closely related to those on historical landform development in the field of geomorphology, they have been studied separately. Those two geomorphology studies correspond to process geomorphology (dynamic geomorphology) and historical geomorphology. There have been some attempts to combine them; however, they lacked past quantitative records available for further analyses. In the study of limnogeomorphology, proxy data can be converted to quantitative information to be utilized in future environmental discussions. This book also covers information not only on large lake-catchment systems, but on small systems. Those include long-term and short-term and large-scale and small-scale environmental changes in east Eurasia such as Lake Baikal, Lake Khuvsgul, Lake Biwa, and small lakes in Japan, Mongolia, China, and Korea.

Because of its centrallocation in the Old World, the Adriatic Sea has long been explored and studied. Modern methods of investigation, however, have accelerated the pace of study during the last decade. These are the ADCP currentmeter, satellite imagery, drifter technology, and, last but not least, the computer with its arsenal of tools for data analysis and model simulations. As a result of this renaissance, the Adriatic Sea and its sub-basins are currently the object of intensified scrutiny by a number of scientific teams, in Europe and be yond. Questions concerning the mesoscale variability that dominates regional motions, the seasonal circulation of the sea, and its long-term climatic role in the broader Mediterranean, have become topics of lively discussions. The time was ripe then when an international workshop dedicated to the physical oceanography of the Adriatic Sea was convened in Trieste on 21-25 September 1998. Its objectives were to assess the current knowledge of the oceanography of the Adriatic Sea, to review the newly acquired observations, to create syn ergy between model simulations and observations, and to identify directions for future Adriatic oceanography. This book, however,is not the mere proceedings of the workshop. It was written as a monograph synthetizing the current knowledge of the physical oceanography of the Adriatic Sea, with the hope that it will serve as a reference to anyone interested in the Adriatic. The book also identifies topics in need of additional inquiry and proposes research directions for the next decade.

Observational and numerical modelling studies of the hydrodynamics, sediment transport, and light extinction were undertaken in the marine environment around Cape Bolinao in the Lingayen Gulf (NW Philippines). This text reports on the results of these studies, and offers conclusions.

In 1981 Chile's military government dictated a new Water Code that radically changed the country's previous water rights system by strengthening private property rights, favoring market incentives, and reducing state regulation. Against the Current: Privatization, Water Markets, and the State in Chile is the first empirical and interdisciplinary study of water markets in Chile, which is the leading international example of free market water policies. Against the Current: Privatization, Water Markets, and the State in Chile challenges the glowing reports given by neoliberals in Chile and the World Bank, showing that the results of this economic experiment have actually been rather mixed. Within the agricultural sector the Water Code has worked fairly well, although the market incentives to conserve water have been ineffective and water rights trading has been less active than expected. The Code's impact has been more negative at the level of river basins, where the institutional framework has revealed critical flaws in coordinating multiple water users and resolving conflicts. Against the Current: Privatization, Water Markets, and the State in Chile combines law, political economy, and geography to analyze the disadvantages, problems, and wider contexts of water markets. This book will appeal to everyone interested in property rights, market-friendly environmental policies, the political economy of sustainable development, and the intersection of economics with law and institutions.