This is a work on "hostile" data and the conditions under which
they are accepted and rejected. What is the place of data in
politics and organization? Why are politicians and administrators
so often hostile to research data, or why do they tend to perceive
data as hostile to them? How can data become relevant to policy?
These questions are the focus of this book. In answer I try to show
how political and administrative institutions cope with "hostile"
data; how they seek to maintain closedness to disconfirming data,
and how they are led, in a free society, to change their policies
despite the epistemological bias in favor of the already known and
the initial inclination to resist change. At the same time, I
demonstrate that data producers must learn that while their
research findings may be subjected to science's own standards of
verifiability, such data must also meet standards of contestability
by the various interests involved in political and administrative
decisions. The production and "appropriate" publication of a
research report may at best buy one an admission ticket to
participate in political and administrative contests, but not the
power nor the justification to determine the outcomes of the
contest. I begin with two hypotheses: Hypothesis 1: Politicians or
administrators reject data that do not coincide with behavior they
are unwilling to change. Hypothesis II: Politicians or
administrators change behavior that does not coincide with data
they are unwilling to reject.
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