Behavioral economics - a field based in collaborations among economists and psychologists - focuses on integrating a nuanced understanding of behavior into models of decision-making. Since the mid-20th century, this growing field has produced research in numerous domains and has influenced policymaking, research, and marketing. However, little has been done to assess these contributions and review evidence of their use in the policy arena. Behavioral Economics: Policy Impact and Future Directions examines the evidence for behavioral economics and its application in six public policy domains: health, retirement benefits, climate change, social safety net benefits, climate change, education, and criminal justice. The report concludes that the principles of behavioral economics are indispensable for the design of policy and recommends integrating behavioral specialists into policy development within government units. In addition, the report calls for strengthening research methodology and identifies research priorities for building on the accomplishments of the field to date. Table of Contents Front Matter Summary 1 Introduction 2 Development of Behavioral Economics 3 Foundational Behavioral and Economic Ideas 4 The Behavioral Economics Toolkit: Policy Levers and Intervention Strategies 5 Health 6 Retirement Benefits 7 Social Safety Net Benefits 8 Climate Change 9 Education 10 Criminal Justice System 11 Findings Across the Policy Domains 12 Conducting and Disseminating Behavioral Economics Research 13 Implementing Behavioral Economics Approaches 14 Advancing the Field of Behavioral Economics Appendix: Biographical Sketches of Committee on Future Directions for Applying Behavioral Economics to Policy

In November 2020, the National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine convened a multi-day virtual symposium on imaging the future of undergraduate STEM education. Speakers and participants pondered the future and the past and shared their goals, priorities, and dreams for improving undergraduate STEM education. Expert speakers presented information about today's students and approaches to undergraduate STEM education, as well as the history of transformation in higher education. Thoughtful discussions explored ideas for the future, how student-centered learning experiences could be created, and what issues to consider to facilitate a successful transformation. This publication summarizes the presentation and discussion of the symposium. Table of Contents Front Matter 1 Introduction 2 Goals for the Future: Changing Purposes of Undergraduate STEM Education 3 Transformation in the U.S. Higher Education System 4 Learning from Today's Students 5 Designing for Tomorrow's Students: Creating Equitable Opportunities for Undergraduate STEM Students 6 The Role of Technology 7 Innovations and Strategies for Moving Forward 8 Final Reflections References Appendix A: Statement of Task Appendix B: Symposium Agenda Appendix C: Biographical Sketches of Symposium Speakers and Moderators

The term "service-learning" generally refers to projects planned as components of academic coursework in which students use knowledge and skills taught in the course to address real needs in their communities. This kind of learning experience, which allows students to focus on critical, reflective thinking and civic responsibility, has become an increasingly popular component of undergraduate science education. In April 2016, the National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine planned a workshop to explore the current and potential role of service-learning in undergraduate geosciences education. Participants explored how service learning is being used in geoscience education, its potential benefits, and the strength of the evidence base regarding the nature and benefits of these experiences. This publication summarizes the presentations and discussions from the workshop. Table of Contents Front Matter 1 Introduction 2 The Role of Service-Learning in the Geosciences 3 Service-Learning Benefits for Students and Institutions 4 Characterizing Current Service-Learning 5 Looking Forward References Appendix A: Workshop Agenda and Participants List Appendix B: Biographical Sketches of Committee Members and Presenters Appendix C: Resources Suggested by Participants

The U.S. Global Change Research Program (USGCRP) was established in 1990 to "assist the Nation and the world to understand, assess, predict, and respond to human-induced and natural processes of global change."1 A key responsibility for the program is to conduct National Climate Assessments (NCAs) every 4 years.2 These assessments are intended to inform the nation about "observed changes in climate, the current status of the climate, and anticipated trends for the future." The USGCRP hopes that government entities from federal agencies to small municipalities, citizens, communities, and businesses will rely on these assessments of climate- related risks for planning and decision-making. The third NCA (NCA3) was published in 2014 and work on the fourth is beginning. The USGCRP asked the Board on Environmental Change and Society of the National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine to conduct a workshop to explore ways to frame the NCA4 and subsequent NCA reports in terms of risks to society. The workshop was intended to collect experienced views on how to characterize and communicate information about climate-related hazards, risks, and opportunities that will support decision makers in their efforts to reduce greenhouse gas emissions, reduce vulnerability to likely changes in climate, and increase resilience to those changes. Characterizing Risk in Climate Change Assessments summarizes the presentations and discussions from the workshop. Table of Contents Front Matter 1 Introduction 2 Characterizing and Communicating Risk 3 Cases: Methods and Approaches for Risk Assessment and Communication 4 Strategies for the Fourth National Climate Assessment References Appendix A: Workshop Agenda Appendix B: Biographical Sketches of Committee Members and Presenters

Video technology offers a number of important potential benefits to researchers and policy makers interested in international comparative research. However, a number of practical and methodological issues remain to be addressed, including sample sizes and the confidentiality of research participants. In light of the potential benefits and recognizing the unresolved issues, the Board on International Comparative Studies in Education (BICSE) offers four recommendations to researchers, funding agencies, and policy makers. Table of Contents Front Matter The Power of Video Technology in International Comparative Research in Appendix: Workshop Agenda and Participants

For the past 17 years, the U.S. National Commission on Mathematics Instruction (USNC/MI) has held workshops with mathematics educators from countries that typically perform well on international assessments and have a history of strong mathematics education programs, such as Japan, China, and South Korea. Finland is among this group. Even though its mathematics education system has some common characteristics with other top-performing nations, such as a great social respect for the teaching profession, it also has unique characteristics. The USNC/MI, a standing committee of the National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine, planned a workshop at which U.S. and Finnish mathematics educators could exchange information and ideas about the preparation of new mathematics teachers and the means of providing them with support and professional development throughout their careers. While this is not the first time U.S. and Finnish mathematics educators have discussed educational practices, this workshop focused primarily on teacher development in both nations in the context of mathematics education. This publication summarizes the presentations and discussions from the workshop. Table of Contents Front Matter 1 Introduction 2 The Finnish Education System 3 The U.S. Education System 4 Teacher Preparation in Finland 5 Teacher Preparation in the United States 6 Teacher Development in Finland: Recent Trends 7 Teacher Development in the United States: Collaborative Approaches 8 Closing Reflections References Appendix A: Workshop Agenda Appendix B: Participants List

Science educators in the United States are adapting to a new vision of how students learn science. Children are natural explorers and their observations and intuitions about the world around them are the foundation for science learning. Unfortunately, the way science has been taught in the United States has not always taken advantage of those attributes. Some students who successfully complete their K?12 science classes have not really had the chance to "do" science for themselves in ways that harness their natural curiosity and understanding of the world around them. The introduction of the Next Generation Science Standards led many states, schools, and districts to change curricula, instruction, and professional development to align with the standards. Therefore existing assessments?whatever their purpose?cannot be used to measure the full range of activities and interactions happening in science classrooms that have adapted to these ideas because they were not designed to do so. Seeing Students Learn Science is meant to help educators improve their understanding of how students learn science and guide the adaptation of their instruction and approach to assessment. It includes examples of innovative assessment formats, ways to embed assessments in engaging classroom activities, and ideas for interpreting and using novel kinds of assessment information. It provides ideas and questions educators can use to reflect on what they can adapt right away and what they can work toward more gradually. Table of Contents Front Matter 1 What's Really Different? 2 What Does This Kind of Assessment Look Like? 3 What Can I Learn from My Students' Work? 4 Building New Kinds of Assessments into the Flow of Your Instruction 5 You and Your School, District, and State References Resources for Practitioners Biographical Sketches of Consulting Experts About the Authors Acknowledgments Index Photo Credits

The development of character is a valued objective for many kinds of educational programs that take place both in and outside of school. Educators and administrators who develop and run programs that seek to develop character recognize that the established approaches for doing so have much in common, and they are eager to learn about promising practices used in other settings, evidence of effectiveness, and ways to measure the effectiveness of their own approaches. In July 2016, the National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine held a workshop to review research and practice relevant to the development of character, with a particular focus on ideas that can support the adults who develop and run out-of-school programs. This publication summarizes the presentations and discussions from the workshop. Table of Contents Front Matter 1 Introduction 2 What Is Character? Moving Beyond Definitional Differences 3 Views of What Works in Developing Character 4 Investing in Implementation and Evaluation 5 Developing a High-Quality Staff 6 Measuring Character 7 Workshop Themes References Appendix A: Workshop Agenda Appendix B: Participant List Appendix C: Biographical Sketches of Committee Members and Presenters Appendix D: Worksheet for Breakout Sessions

Fertility rates and population growth influence economic development. The marked declines in fertility seen in some developing nations have been accompanied by slowing population growth, which in turn provided a window of opportunity for rapid economic growth. For many sub-Saharan African nations, this window has not yet opened because fertility rates have not declined as rapidly there as elsewhere. Fertility rates in many sub-Saharan African countries are high: the total rate for the region is estimated to be 5.1 births per woman, and rates that had begun to decline in many countries in the region have stalled. High rates of fertility in these countries are likely to contribute to continued rapid population growth: the United Nations projects that the region's population will increase by 1.2 billion by 2050, the highest growth among the regions for which there are projections. In June 2015, the Committee on Population organized a workshop to explore fertility trends and the factors that have influenced them. The workshop committee was asked to explore history and trends related to fertility, proximate determinants and other influences, the status and impact of family planning programs, and prospects for further reducing fertility rates. This study will help donors, researchers, and policy makers better understand the factors that may explain the slow pace of fertility decline in this region, and develop methods to improve family planning in sub-Saharan Africa. Table of Contents Front Matter 1 Introduction 2 General Fertility Trends 3 Trends in Reproductive Behavior 4 The Effects of Contraceptive Practice 5 Policy Options and Opportunities References Appendix A: Workshop Agenda Appendix B: Workshop Participants List Appendix C: Biographical Sketches of Steering Committee Members

The deficiencies that many children experience from birth to school age-in health care, nutrition, emotional support, and intellectual stimulation, for example-play a major role in academic achievement gaps that persist for years, as well as in behavior and other problems. There are many intervention programs designed to strengthen families, provide disadvantaged children with the critical elements of healthy development, and prevent adverse experiences that can have lasting negative effects. In a climate of economic uncertainty and tight budgets, hard evidence not only that such interventions provide lasting benefits for children, their families, and society, but also that the benefits translate into savings that outweigh the costs is an extremely important asset in policy discussions. Convincing analysis of benefits and costs would provide a guide to the best ways to spend scarce resources for early childhood programs. Benefit-Cost Analysis for Early Childhood Interventions summarizes a workshop that was held to explore ways to strengthen benefit-cost analysis so it can be used to support effective policy decisions. This book describes the information and analysis that were presented at the workshop and the discussions that ensued. Table of Contents Front Matter 1 Introduction 2 Evaluation 3 Analyzing Costs 4 Assessing Outcomes 5 A Closer Look at the Problem of Valuation 6 Generalizability of Benefit-Cost Analyses 7 Benefit-Cost Analysis in a Policy Context References Appendix A: Glossary Appendix B: Workshop Agenda and Participants

The presence and intensity of media influences television, radio, music, computers, films, videos, and the Internet are increasingly recognized as an important part of the social ecology of children and youth, and these influences have become more visible and volatile in recent decades. Research that explores the level and effects of media influences calls for measurements of the quantity and character of exposure to a variety of potentially overlapping media sources, an analysis of the content of the media output, and examination of the social context and relationships that are associated with the media experience. Recognizing the importance of this research, the Board on Children, Youth, and Families, under the auspices of the National Research Council and the Institute of Medicine, and with the sponsorship of the Henry J. Kaiser Family Foundation, held a workshop in March 2006. Its purpose was twofold: to examine the quality of the measures used in studies of the effects of media on children's health and development and to identify gaps in both research and practice. The goal was for a variety of experts to consider steps and strategies that could move this research forward and improve its utility for helping parents, practitioners, and policy makers guide young people in navigating a media-rich environment. Studying Media Effects on Children and Youth provides a summary of that discussion, supplemented with information from two papers prepared for the workshop. It begins with an examination of the potential impact of media exposure, followed by a description of the basic research questions and the methods currently used to study them. Methodological questions and challenges and theoretical approaches are described; they are discussed from the perspective of other kinds of epidemiological research. This report closes with a discussion of future directions for the field. Table of Contents Front Matter 1 Introduction 2 Media Consumption as a Public Health Issue 3 The Current State of Media Research 4 Methodological Questions, Challenges, and Opportunities 5 Perspectives from Other Kinds of Epidemiological Research 6 Where Next? References Appendix: Workshop Agenda and Participants

Climate change is occurring, is very likely caused by human activities, and poses significant risks for a broad range of human and natural systems. Each additional ton of greenhouse gases emitted commits us to further change and greater risks. In the judgment of the Committee on America's Climate Choices, the environmental, economic, and humanitarian risks of climate change indicate a pressing need for substantial action to limit the magnitude of climate change and to prepare to adapt to its impacts. A principal message from the recent National Research Council report, America's Climate Choices, this brief summary of how climate change will shape many aspects of life in the foreseeable future emphasizes the vital importance of preparation for these changes. The report points to the importance of formal and informal education in supporting the public's understanding of those challenges climate change will bring, and in preparing current and future generations to act to limit the magnitude of climate change and respond to those challenges. Recognizing both the urgency and the difficulty of climate change education, the National Research Council, with support from the National Science Foundation, formed the Climate Change Education Roundtable. The roundtable brings together federal agency representatives with diverse experts and practitioners in the physical and natural sciences, social sciences, learning sciences, environmental education, education policy, extension education and outreach, resource management, and public policy to engage in discussion and explore educational strategies for addressing climate change. Two workshops were held to survey the landscape of climate change education. The first explored the goals for climate change education for various target audiences. The second workshop, which is the focus of this summary, was held on August 31 and September 1, 2011, and focused on the teaching and learning of climate change and climate science in formal education settings, from kindergarten through the first two years of college (K-14). This workshop, based on an already articulated need to teach climate change education, provided a forum for discussion of the evidence from research and practice. The goal of this workshop was to raise and explore complex questions around climate change education, and to address the current status of climate change education in grade K-14 of the formal education system by facilitating discussion between expert researchers and practitioners in complementary fields, such as education policy, teacher professional development, learning and cognitive science, K-12 and higher education administration, instructional design, curriculum development, and climate science. Climate Change Education in Formal Settings, K-14: A Workshop Summary summarizes the two workshops. Table of Contents Front Matter 1 Introduction 2 Student Understanding of Climate Change 3 Science Education Standards and Climate Change 4 Teacher Understanding and Preparation 5 Innovations at the High School and College Levels 6 Closing Discussion: Major Messages and Parting Thoughts References Appendix A: Workshop Agenda and List of Participants Appendix B: Climate Change Education Roundtable Appendix C: Biographical Sketches of Presenters, Steering Committee Members, and Staff

The education system in the United States is continually challenged to adapt and improve, in part because its mission has become far more ambitious than it once was. At the turn of the 20th century, less than one-tenth of students enrolled were expected to graduate from high school. Today, most people expect schools to prepare all students to succeed in postsecondary education and to prosper in a complex, fast-changing global economy. Goals have broadened to include not only rigorous benchmarks in core academic subjects, but also technological literacy and the subtler capacities known as 21st-century skills. To identify the most important measures for education and other issues and provide quality data on them to the American people, Congress authorized the creation of a Key National Indicators System (KNIS). This system will be a single Web-based information source designed to help policy makers and the public better assess the position and progress of the nation across a wide range of areas. Identifying the right set of indicators for each area is not a small challenge. To serve their purpose of providing objective information that can encourage improvement and innovation, the indicators need to be valid and reliable but they also need to capture the report committee's aspirations for education. This report describes a workshop, planned under the aegis of the Board on Testing and Assessment and the Committee on National Statistics of the National Research Council. Key National Education Indicators is a summary of the meeting of a group with extensive experience in research, public policy, and practice. The goal of the workshop was not to make a final selection of indicators, but to take an important first step by clearly identifying the parameters of the challenge. Table of Contents Front Matter 1 Introduction 2 Indicators for Preschool 3 Indicators for K-12 Education 4 Indicators for Higher Education 5 Indicators for Adult Postsecondary Education and Training 6 Indicators for Lifelong, Informal Learning 7 Concluding Thoughts References Appendix A: Workshop Agenda Appendix B: Workshop Participants Appendix C: Indicators Identified By Individual Panelists

A 2010 IOM report, Promoting Cardiovascular Health in the Developing World, found that not only is it possible to reduce the burden of cardiovascular disease and related chronic diseases in developing countries, but also that such a reduction will be critical to achieving global health and development goals. As part a series of follow-up activities to the 2010 report, the IOM held a workshop that aimed to identify what is needed to create tools for country-led planning of effective, efficient, and equitable provision of chronic disease control programs. Table of Contents Front Matter 1 Introduction 2 Progress, Needs, and Lessons Learned: Perspectives from Six Countries 3 Data Availability and Gaps in Four Countries 4 Examples of Tools for Costing, Economic Modeling, and Priority Setting 5 Approaches to Supporting Country-Led Action 6 Summary of Considerations for Developing a Toolkit for Country-Led Decision Making References Appendix A: Workshop Agenda Appendix B: Biographies

Educators and policy makers in the United States have relied on tests to measure educational progress for more than 150 years. During the twentieth century, technical advances, such as machines for automatic scoring and computer-based scoring and reporting, have supported states in a growing reliance on standardized tests for statewide accountability. State assessment data have been cited as evidence for claims about many achievements of public education, and the tests have also been blamed for significant failings. As standards come under new scrutiny, so, too, do the assessments that measure their results. The goal for this workshop, the first of two, was to collect information and perspectives on assessment that could be of use to state officials and others as they review current assessment practices and consider improvements. Table of Contents Front Matter 1 Introduction 2 Improving Assessments - Possibilities and Questions 3 Innovative Assessment - Lessons from the Past and Present 4 Political Experiences and Considerations 5 Opportunities for Better Assessment 6 Research Needs References Appendix A: Workshop Agenda Appendix B: Workshop Participants

Note: This is the French translation of Recent Fertility Trends in Sub-Saharan Africa. Fertility rates and population growth influence economic development. The marked declines in fertility seen in some developing nations have been accompanied by slowing population growth, which in turn provided a window of opportunity for rapid economic growth. For many sub-Saharan African nations, this window has not yet opened because fertility rates have not declined as rapidly there as elsewhere. Fertility rates in many sub-Saharan African countries are high: the total rate for the region is estimated to be 5.1 births per woman, and rates that had begun to decline in many countries in the region have stalled. High rates of fertility in these countries are likely to contribute to continued rapid population growth: the United Nations projects that the region's population will increase by 1.2 billion by 2050, the highest growth among the regions for which there are projections. In June 2015, the Committee on Population organized a workshop to explore fertility trends and the factors that have influenced them. The workshop committee was asked to explore history and trends related to fertility, proximate determinants and other influences, the status and impact of family planning programs, and prospects for further reducing fertility rates. This study will help donors, researchers, and policy makers better understand the factors that may explain the slow pace of fertility decline in this region, and develop methods to improve family planning in sub-Saharan Africa. Table of Contents Front Matter 1 Introduction 2 Tendances generales de la fecondite 3 Tendances du comportement reproductif 4 Les effets de la pratique de la contraception 5 Options et opportunites en matiere de politiques publiques References bibliographiques Annexe A: Programme de l'atelier Annexe B: Liste des participants a l'atelier Annexe C: Biographie succincte des membres du comite directeur