This biography gives an insider view of 20th century German science in the making. The discovery by Max von Laue in 1912 of interference effects demonstrated the wave-like nature of X-rays and the atomic lattice structure of crystals. This major advance for research on solids earned him the Nobel Prize two years later, the ultimate acclaim as an exceptional theoretician. As an early supporter of Einstein's relativity theory, he published fundamental papers on light scattering as well as on matter waves and superconductivity. Laue may be counted among the few persons of influence in Germany who - as Einstein put it - managed to "stay morally upright" under Nazism. It is thus surprising that this is the first extensive biography of this famous scientist. Jost Lemmerich could hardly have been better equipped to describe German physics and physicists in the 1920s. His copiously illustrated historical account is based as much on scientific material as on private correspondence, creating a fascinating and convincingly detailed portrait.

This book focuses on the gradual formation of the concept of 'light quanta' or 'photons', as they have usually been called in English since 1926. The great number of synonyms that have been used by physicists to denote this concept indicates that there are many different mental models of what 'light quanta' are: simply finite, 'quantized packages of energy' or 'bullets of light'? 'Atoms of light' or 'molecules of light'? 'Light corpuscles' or 'quantized waves'? Singularities of the field or spatially extended structures able to interfere? 'Photons' in G.N. Lewis's sense, or as defined by QED, i.e. virtual exchange particles transmitting the electromagnetic force? The term 'light quantum' made its first appearance in Albert Einstein's 1905 paper on a "heuristic point of view" to cope with the photoelectric effect and other forms of interaction of light and matter, but the mental model associated with it has a rich history both before and after 1905. Some of its semantic layers go as far back as Newton and Kepler, some are only fully expressed several decades later, while others initially increased in importance then diminished and finally vanished. In conjunction with these various terms, several mental models of light quanta were developed-six of them are explored more closely in this book. It discusses two historiographic approaches to the problem of concept formation: (a) the author's own model of conceptual development as a series of semantic accretions and (b) Mark Turner's model of 'conceptual blending'. Both of these models are shown to be useful and should be explored further. This is the first historiographically sophisticated history of the fully fledged concept and all of its twelve semantic layers. It systematically combines the history of science with the history of terms and a philosophically inspired history of ideas in conjunction with insights from cognitive science.

This book focuses on the gradual formation of the concept of 'light quanta' or 'photons', as they have usually been called in English since 1926. The great number of synonyms that have been used by physicists to denote this concept indicates that there are many different mental models of what 'light quanta' are: simply finite, 'quantized packages of energy' or 'bullets of light'? 'Atoms of light' or 'molecules of light'? 'Light corpuscles' or 'quantized waves'? Singularities of the field or spatially extended structures able to interfere? 'Photons' in G.N. Lewis's sense, or as defined by QED, i.e. virtual exchange particles transmitting the electromagnetic force? The term 'light quantum' made its first appearance in Albert Einstein's 1905 paper on a "heuristic point of view" to cope with the photoelectric effect and other forms of interaction of light and matter, but the mental model associated with it has a rich history both before and after 1905. Some of its semantic layers go as far back as Newton and Kepler, some are only fully expressed several decades later, while others initially increased in importance then diminished and finally vanished. In conjunction with these various terms, several mental models of light quanta were developed-six of them are explored more closely in this book. It discusses two historiographic approaches to the problem of concept formation: (a) the author's own model of conceptual development as a series of semantic accretions and (b) Mark Turner's model of 'conceptual blending'. Both of these models are shown to be useful and should be explored further. This is the first historiographically sophisticated history of the fully fledged concept and all of its twelve semantic layers. It systematically combines the history of science with the history of terms and a philosophically inspired history of ideas in conjunction with insights from cognitive science.

A translation of selected non-English texts included in Volume 13 is available in paperback. Since this supplementary paperback includes only select portions of Volume 13, it is not recommended for purchase without the main volume.

Every document in "The Collected Papers of Albert Einstein" appears in the language in which it was written, and this supplementary paperback volume presents the English translations of select portions of non-English materials in Volume 13. This translation does not include notes or annotation of the documentary volume and is not intended for use without the original language documentary edition which provides the extensive editorial commentary necessary for a full historical and scientific understanding of the documents.

This is a history of one of the oldest and most important scientific societies, the German Physical Society, during the Nazi regime and immediate postwar period. When Hitler was appointed chancellor of Germany in 1933, the Physical Society included prominent Jewish scientists as members, including Fritz Haber and Albert Einstein. As Jewish scientists lost their jobs and emigrated, the Society gradually lost members. In 1938, under pressure from the Nazi Ministry of Science, Education, and Culture, the Society forced out the last of its Jewish colleagues. This action was just the most prominent example of the tension between accommodation and autonomy that characterized the challenges facing physicists in the society. They strove to retain as much autonomy as possible, but tried to achieve this by accommodating themselves to Nazi policies, which culminated in the campaign by the Society's president to place physics in the service of the war effort.

This biography gives an insider view of 20th century German science in the making. The discovery by Max von Laue in 1912 of interference effects demonstrated the wave-like nature of X-rays and the atomic lattice structure of crystals. This major advance for research on solids earned him the Nobel Prize two years later, the ultimate acclaim as an exceptional theoretician. As an early supporter of Einstein’s relativity theory, he published fundamental papers on light scattering as well as on matter waves and superconductivity. Laue may be counted among the few persons of influence in Germany who – as Einstein put it – managed to “stay morally upright� under Nazism. It is thus surprising that this is the first extensive biography of this famous scientist. Jost Lemmerich could hardly have been better equipped to describe German physics and physicists in the 1920s. His copiously illustrated historical account is based as much on scientific material as on private correspondence, creating a fascinating and convincingly detailed portrait.

A translation of selected non-English texts included in Volume 15 is available in paperback. Since this supplementary paperback includes only select portions of Volume 15, it is not recommended for purchase without the main volume. Every document in The Collected Papers of Albert Einstein appears in the language in which it was written, and this supplementary paperback volume presents the English translations of select portions of non-English materials in Volume 15. This translation does not include notes or annotation of the documentary volume and is not intended for use without the original language documentary edition which provides the extensive editorial commentary necessary for a full historical and scientific understanding of the documents.

James Franck (1882-1964) was one of the twentieth century's most respected scientists, known both for his contributions to physics and for his moral courage. During the 1920s, Franck was a prominent figure in the German physics community. His research into the structure of the atom earned him the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1925. After the Nazis seized power in 1933, Franck resigned his professorship at Gottingen in protest against anti-Jewish policies. He soon emigrated to the United States, where, at the University of Chicago, he began innovative research into photosynthesis.
When the Second World War began, Franck was recruited for the Manhattan Project. With Enrico Fermi and Leo Szilard, he created a controlled nuclear chain reaction which led to the creation of a nuclear weapon. During the final months of the war, however, Franck grew concerned about the consequences of using such a weapon. He became the principal author of the celebrated "Franck Report," which urged Truman not to use the atomic bomb and warned that a nuclear arms race against the Soviet Union would be an inevitable result. After the War, Franck turned his attention back to photosynthesis; his discoveries influenced chemistry as well as physics.

This book focuses on the "Einstein Tower," an architecturally historic observatory built in Potsdam in 1920 to allow the German astronomer Erwin Finlay Freundlich to attempt to verify experimentally Einstein's general theory of relativity. Freundlich, who was the first German astronomer to show a genuine interest in Einstein's theory, managed to interest his architect friend Erich Mendelsohn in designing this unique building. Freundlich's researches were not a success; he came to doubt the very theory he was attempting to prove. (Adequate technology to test Einstein's theory lay many decades in the future.) By contrast, as an experiment in modernist architecture, the building led to international fame for Mendelsohn.
To develop a full historical picture of this moment in the history of science, the book interweaves several descriptive levels: the biography of Freundlich; the social context in which he interacted with teachers, co-workers, students, his patrons (including Einstein), and scientific opponents; the cognitive aspects of his attempts to verify Einstein's theory; the political milieu within the Berlin scientific research community; and a cross-national comparison of astrophysics.
Other layers of the narrative include the place of the Einstein Tower in architectural history; economics and sociopsychological components of the Tower's financing and construction; the reception of the Tower and the theory; a historical examination of the Tower's research results; and the effect on Freundlich and on the work at the Tower of the National Socialists' rise to power.

1 Aim and General Description of the Anthology The purpose of this anthology is to introduce the English speaking public to the wide spectrum of texts authored predominently by physicists portraying the ac tual and perceived role of physics in the Nazi state. Up to now no broad and well balanced documentation of German physics during this time has been available in English, despite the significant role physics has played both politically (e. g. , in weaponry planning) and ideologically (e. g. , in the controversy over the value of theoretical ('Jewish') vs. experimental ('Aryan') physics), and even though prominent figures like the scientist-philosopher and emigre Albert Einstein and the controversial nuclear physicist Werner Heisenberg have become household names. This anthology will attempt to bridge this gap by presenting contempo rary documents and eye-witness accounts by the physicists themselves. Authors were chosen to represent the various political opinions and specialties within the physics community, omitting some of the more readily accessible texts by leading physicists (e. g. , Einstein, Heisenberg, Lenard) in favor of those by less well-known but nonetheless important figures (e. g. , Finkelnburg, Max Wien, Ramsauer). In this way we hope not only to circumvent the constricted 'Great Men' approach to history but also to offer a broader picture of the activities and conflicts within the field and the effects of the political forces exerted upon them.

This volume opens in spring 1914 when Einstein takes up a research professorship at the Prussian Academy of Sciences in Berlin and closes with the collapse of the German Empire four and one-half years later. A good portion of the documentation, which comprises more than 675 letters, has only recently been discovered by the editors. The letters touch on all aspects of Einstein's activities and shed new light on his inner life, while enriching our understanding of his published papers, presented in volumes 6 and 7 of this series.

The breakup of Einstein's first marriage and the divorce are presented here for the first time in all their complexity. New material shows Einstein maintaining a strong sense of moral urgency throughout the war. The scientific correspondence documents Einstein's struggle to find satisfactory field equations for his new gravitational theory--the general theory of relativity--and his continued discussion with leading physicists and mathematicians about the implications and further development of the theory.

Every document in The Collected Papers of Albert Einstein appears in the language in which it was written, and this supplementary paperback volume presents the English translations of all non-English materials. This translation does not include notes or annotation of the documentary volume and is not intended for use without the original language documentary edition which provides the extensive editorial commentary necessary for a full historical and scientific understanding of the documents.

The present volume, set in the turbulent post-World War I period, finds Einstein awaiting news of the 1919 British eclipse expedition to test the general relativistic prediction of the deflection of starlight by the sun. With the expedition's success, he becomes the first science celebrity of our age. Deeply interested in the other, stellar redshift test of his theory, Einstein supports astronomers engaged in experimental work on the issue. Piqued by early suggestions of a unified field theory, he ponders how to unify gravitation and electromagnetic field theory and also works to resolve contradictions between the new quantum physics and relativity. His open-minded exchanges with colleagues may challenge his later image as the stubborn critic of quantum mechanics.

We see Einstein deeply engaged in discussing social and political issues, participating in humanitarian efforts, and intervening on behalf of intellectuals condemned to death after the fall of the Bavarian Soviet republic. He faced anti-Semitic outbursts, reflected increasingly on his own identity as a Jew and assisted in efforts toward the establishment of the Hebrew University. As an internationalist opponent of war, and a German-speaking Swiss citizen whose renown was sealed by the Englishman Eddington's confirmation of relativity, Einstein mitigated postwar hostility toward German scholars.

Correspondence with family and friends documents his divorce, remarriage to his cousin, and his closeness to his two sons. Notwithstanding evidence in newly uncovered material concerning efforts to lure Einstein back to Switzerland, and also to the Netherlands, Einstein, entertaining high hopes for the young Weimar Republic, remained in Berlin. This volume reveals new facets of Einstein as he constructively participated in German and European scientific, academic, and cultural life.

Since this translation includes only select portions of Volume 9, it is not recommended for purchase without the main volume.

This is a book about a box that contained the world. The box was the "Picture Academy for the Young," a popular encyclopedia in pictures invented by preacher-turned-publisher Johann Siegmund Stoy in eighteenth-century Germany. Children were expected to cut out the pictures from the "Academy," glue them onto cards, and arrange those cards in ordered compartments--the whole world filed in a box of images.
As Anke te Heesen demonstrates, Stoy and his world in a box epitomized the Enlightenment concern with the creation and maintenance of an appropriate moral, intellectual, and social order. The box, and its images from nature, myth, and biblical history, were intended to teach children how to collect, store, and order knowledge. te Heesen compares the "Academy" with other aspects of Enlightenment material culture, such as commercial warehouses and natural history cabinets, to show how the kinds of collecting and ordering practices taught by the "Academy" shaped both the developing middle class in Germany and Enlightenment thought. "The World in a Box," illustrated with a multitude of images of and from Stoy's "Academy," offers a glimpse into a time when it was believed that knowledge could be contained and controlled.

This is a book about a box that contained the world. The box was the "Picture Academy for the Young," a popular encyclopedia in pictures invented by preacher-turned-publisher Johann Siegmund Stoy in eighteenth-century Germany. Children were expected to cut out the pictures from the "Academy," glue them onto cards, and arrange those cards in ordered compartments--the whole world filed in a box of images.
As Anke te Heesen demonstrates, Stoy and his world in a box epitomized the Enlightenment concern with the creation and maintenance of an appropriate moral, intellectual, and social order. The box, and its images from nature, myth, and biblical history, were intended to teach children how to collect, store, and order knowledge. te Heesen compares the "Academy" with other aspects of Enlightenment material culture, such as commercial warehouses and natural history cabinets, to show how the kinds of collecting and ordering practices taught by the "Academy" shaped both the developing middle class in Germany and Enlightenment thought. "The World in a Box," illustrated with a multitude of images of and from Stoy's "Academy," offers a glimpse into a time when it was believed that knowledge could be contained and controlled.