This accessible introduction shows the reader how to understand, implement, adapt, and apply Learning Classifier Systems (LCSs) to interesting and difficult problems. The text builds an understanding from basic ideas and concepts. The authors first explore learning through environment interaction, and then walk through the components of LCS that form this rule-based evolutionary algorithm. The applicability and adaptability of these methods is highlighted by providing descriptions of common methodological alternatives for different components that are suited to different types of problems from data mining to autonomous robotics. The authors have also paired exercises and a simple educational LCS (eLCS) algorithm (implemented in Python) with this book. It is suitable for courses or self-study by advanced undergraduate and postgraduate students in subjects such as Computer Science, Engineering, Bioinformatics, and Cybernetics, and by researchers, data analysts, and machine learning practitioners.

In [Hardy and Williams, 1986] the authors exploited a very simple idea to obtain a linear congruence involving class numbers of imaginary quadratic fields modulo a certain power of 2. Their congruence provided a unified setting for many congruences proved previously by other authors using various means. The Hardy-Williams idea was as follows. Let d be the discriminant of a quadratic field. Suppose that d is odd and let d = PIP2* . . Pn be its unique decomposition into prime discriminants. Then, for any positive integer k coprime with d, the congruence holds trivially as each Legendre-Jacobi-Kronecker symbol (~) has the value + 1 or -1. Expanding this product gives ~ eld e:=l (mod4) where e runs through the positive and negative divisors of d and v (e) denotes the number of distinct prime factors of e. Summing this congruence for o < k < Idl/8, gcd(k, d) = 1, gives ~ (-It(e) ~ (~) =:O(mod2n). eld o

In [Hardy and Williams, 1986] the authors exploited a very simple idea to obtain a linear congruence involving class numbers of imaginary quadratic fields modulo a certain power of 2. Their congruence provided a unified setting for many congruences proved previously by other authors using various means. The Hardy-Williams idea was as follows. Let d be the discriminant of a quadratic field. Suppose that d is odd and let d = PIP2* . . Pn be its unique decomposition into prime discriminants. Then, for any positive integer k coprime with d, the congruence holds trivially as each Legendre-Jacobi-Kronecker symbol (~) has the value + 1 or -1. Expanding this product gives ~ eld e:=l (mod4) where e runs through the positive and negative divisors of d and v (e) denotes the number of distinct prime factors of e. Summing this congruence for o < k < Idl/8, gcd(k, d) = 1, gives ~ (-It(e) ~ (~) =:O(mod2n). eld o