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I. Until about a dozen years ago, the economic analysis of the
relationship between political preferences and political demands
was a rather straightforward, if dull, subject. The most common
assumption was that the only political instrument available to
citizens was the vote. Given this assumption, the analyst could
express the outcome of the voting process in one of two ways. One
possibility was to make the heroic assumptions necessary to obtain
the median voter theorem, in which case, the political demands of
the citizenry are simply the preferences of the median voter. The
alternative was to make Arrow's Impossibility Theorem in which case
even though individual preferences are well ordered, no collective
preference function exists. On either of these approaches,
institutions such as interest groups, political parties, or the
structures ofpolitical representation played no role in the
analysis. The work of "Chicago" scholars especially George Stigler,
Gary Becker and Sam Peltzman took a different approach and
emphasized the
importanceoforganizationinmakingpoliticaldemandseffective, shifting
thefocus from voting topolitical "pressure" byinterestgroups.
However, in these models, voting as an instrument of political
action simply disappears and the relationship between interest
group pressures and electoral processes has never been clarified.
P. de Bernardis, S. Masi , G. Moreno Dipartimento di Fisica,
Universita' "La Sapienza" 00184 Roma Italy ABSTRACT. Anisotropy
measurement techniques and results are reviewed, with special
attention given to experimental problems. The cosmological
relevance of the dipole anisotropy, the only anisotropy truly
detected in the Cosmic Background Radiation, is discussed. 1.
INTRODUCTION Anisotropy of the Cosmic Background Radiation at 2.7 K
(CBR hereafter) is a cosmological topic with a wide range of
applications. In order to define anisotropy let us consider fig. 1
a, where the celestial sphere is shown with two beams A and B, with
beamwidth 0 and angular separation e. We define the anisotropy of
CBR at angular scale e in terms of the difference i'2,1 between the
CBR flux I(ex,u) measured in the two beams. At small angular scales
(e ) a "stochastic" approach is preferred, and the anisotropy is
defined as .cJ I = GBP (1) I e where the brackets indicate averages
over the whole celestial sphere. At large angular scales e>l a
deterministic approach is preferred, and the CBR flux I(ex, S) is
expressed as a sum of spherical harmonics (2) I (ex, S) = I ~ aIm Y
(ex, S) lm I,m The alm coefficients give the dipole, quadrupole and
higher order components of the anisotropy. 257 P. Galeotti and D.
N. Schramm (eds.), Gauge Theory and the Early Universe, 257-282.
The second Erice course in the school of Particle-Astrophysics was
held in May, 1988. The topic choosen was Dark Matter. This is one
of the most exciting top ics at the interface of particle physics
and astrophysics. It is developing rapidly now due to a coming
together not only of the theoretical concepts from the early
universe with the theoretical concepts of galaxy formation, but
also the coming to gether of the theorists, experimentalists and
observers. It is with Dark Matter, the combined interrelated topics
of galaxy formation and the generation of large scale structure
that we see a confrontation of the exotic ideas from the early
universe, such as phase transitions and unification, coming face to
face with the realities of traditional observational cosmology.
These realities have recently been heightened by the tremendous
number of new observations, demonstrating that large scale
structure of the universe is far more complex than anybody had
suspected. In particular, we now see large scale foam, apparent
large scale velocity fields, indicating devations from the Hubble
flow, large scales of the order 100 Mpc, and galaxy formation
occurring at high red shifts much greater than unity. We also see
an apparent correlation of clusters of galaxies that may even
exceed the c- relation of galaxies despite their being on much
larger scales with lower average densities."
I. The concept of competition played a central role in the very
first attempts to apply the tools of economics to the analysis of
politics. Adopting Hotelling's (1929) industrial organization model
of imperfect competition in markets in which space has a
predominant role, Downs (1957), following on some perceptive
insights of Schumpeter (1942), was able to formulate a model of
electoral competition in which political parties, seeking the
support of citizens, compete against each other in offering
policies designed to elicit their vote. Downs' model and the
numerous variants to which it gave birth soon became the major
component of what was to become Public Choice Theory. The enormous
efforts of the last 30 years devoted to modelling electoral
competition have helped improve our understanding of politics and
have contributed a basic element that undoubtedly will remain
essential to any reasonably complete theory of politics. But
whatever may have been early expectations, it is now clear that
electoral competition will only be one such element. More recently,
the idea of competition has been used to model interest-group
behavior. Becker (1983), building on earlier work by Bentley
(1908), Truman (1958), Olson (1965), Stigler (1971) and Peltzman
(1976), applied the Public Finance analysis of the excess-burden of
taxes and subsidies - to which, incidentally, Hotelling (1938) had
made pioneering contribution- to produce a model in which
competition between interest groups determines an equilibrium
distribution of income.
This volwne is the proceedings of the third school in particle
astrophysics that Schramm and Galeotti have organized at Erice. The
focus of thirs third school was the Generation of Cosmological
Large-Scale Structure. It was held in November of 1996. The fIrst
school in the series was on "Gauge Theory and the Early Universe"
in May 1986, the second was on "Dark Matter in the Universe" in May
1988. All three schools have been successful under the auspices of
the NATO Advanced Study Institute. This volume is thus the third in
the series of the proceedings of these schools. The choice of the
topic for this third school was natural, since the problem of
generating a large-scale structure has become the most pressing
problem in cosmology today. In particular, it is this generation of
structure that is the interface between astronomical observations
and particle models for the early universe. To date, all models for
generating structures inevitably require new fundamental physics
beyond the standard, SU x SU X U , model of high energy physics.
The 3 2 I seeds for generating structures usually invoke
unifIcation physics, and the matter needed to clump and form them
seems to require particle properties that have not been seen in
laboratories to date.
G. Galeotti* and M. Marrelli** *Universita di Perugia **Universita
di Napoli 1. The economic analysis of optimal taxation has
permitted considerable steps to be taken towards the understanding
of a number of problems: the appropriate degree of progression, the
balance between different taxes, the equity-efficiency trade-off
etc .. Though at times considered as abstract and of little use in
policy design, the issues it addresses are real ones and very much
on the agenda of many countries. As usual in scientific debate,
criticisms have contributed to the correct understanding of the
theoretical problems involved and made clear that, at the present
state of the art, definitive conclusions may be premature. A first
well-taken criticism addresses the assumption, underlying optimal
taxation models, of a competitive economy with perfect information
on the part of individual agents and full market clearing. Once we
leave the Arrow-Debreu world, it is no longer necessarily the case
that taxes and transfers introduce distortions on otherwise
efficient allocations.
I. Until about a dozen years ago, the economic analysis of the
relationship between political preferences and political demands
was a rather straightforward, if dull, subject. The most common
assumption was that the only political instrument available to
citizens was the vote. Given this assumption, the analyst could
express the outcome of the voting process in one of two ways. One
possibility was to make the heroic assumptions necessary to obtain
the median voter theorem, in which case, the political demands of
the citizenry are simply the preferences of the median voter. The
alternative was to make Arrow's Impossibility Theorem in which case
even though individual preferences are well ordered, no collective
preference function exists. On either of these approaches,
institutions such as interest groups, political parties, or the
structures ofpolitical representation played no role in the
analysis. The work of "Chicago" scholars especially George Stigler,
Gary Becker and Sam Peltzman took a different approach and
emphasized the
importanceoforganizationinmakingpoliticaldemandseffective, shifting
thefocus from voting topolitical "pressure" byinterestgroups.
However, in these models, voting as an instrument of political
action simply disappears and the relationship between interest
group pressures and electoral processes has never been clarified.
G. Galeotti* and M. Marrelli** *Universita di Perugia **Universita
di Napoli 1. The economic analysis of optimal taxation has
permitted considerable steps to be taken towards the understanding
of a number of problems: the appropriate degree of progression, the
balance between different taxes, the equity-efficiency trade-off
etc .. Though at times considered as abstract and of little use in
policy design, the issues it addresses are real ones and very much
on the agenda of many countries. As usual in scientific debate,
criticisms have contributed to the correct understanding of the
theoretical problems involved and made clear that, at the present
state of the art, definitive conclusions may be premature. A first
well-taken criticism addresses the assumption, underlying optimal
taxation models, of a competitive economy with perfect information
on the part of individual agents and full market clearing. Once we
leave the Arrow-Debreu world, it is no longer necessarily the case
that taxes and transfers introduce distortions on otherwise
efficient allocations.
The second Erice course in the school of Particle-Astrophysics was
held in May, 1988. The topic choosen was Dark Matter. This is one
of the most exciting top ics at the interface of particle physics
and astrophysics. It is developing rapidly now due to a coming
together not only of the theoretical concepts from the early
universe with the theoretical concepts of galaxy formation, but
also the coming to gether of the theorists, experimentalists and
observers. It is with Dark Matter, the combined interrelated topics
of galaxy formation and the generation of large scale structure
that we see a confrontation of the exotic ideas from the early
universe, such as phase transitions and unification, coming face to
face with the realities of traditional observational cosmology.
These realities have recently been heightened by the tremendous
number of new observations, demonstrating that large scale
structure of the universe is far more complex than anybody had
suspected. In particular, we now see large scale foam, apparent
large scale velocity fields, indicating devations from the Hubble
flow, large scales of the order 100 Mpc, and galaxy formation
occurring at high red shifts much greater than unity. We also see
an apparent correlation of clusters of galaxies that may even
exceed the c- relation of galaxies despite their being on much
larger scales with lower average densities."
This volwne is the proceedings of the third school in particle
astrophysics that Schramm and Galeotti have organized at Erice. The
focus of thirs third school was the Generation of Cosmological
Large-Scale Structure. It was held in November of 1996. The fIrst
school in the series was on "Gauge Theory and the Early Universe"
in May 1986, the second was on "Dark Matter in the Universe" in May
1988. All three schools have been successful under the auspices of
the NATO Advanced Study Institute. This volume is thus the third in
the series of the proceedings of these schools. The choice of the
topic for this third school was natural, since the problem of
generating a large-scale structure has become the most pressing
problem in cosmology today. In particular, it is this generation of
structure that is the interface between astronomical observations
and particle models for the early universe. To date, all models for
generating structures inevitably require new fundamental physics
beyond the standard, SU x SU X U , model of high energy physics.
The 3 2 I seeds for generating structures usually invoke
unifIcation physics, and the matter needed to clump and form them
seems to require particle properties that have not been seen in
laboratories to date.
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