Europe is undergoing rapid and profound social and political change, and time-honoured methods and practices are being challenged as a result. Nowhere is this challenge more pressing and relevant than in education, which is charged with the task of preparing future generations for the "New Europe." Everyone accepts that education should be for all, that it needs to be extended, and that "education for life" is a phrase with real significance, but how is education best provided? In February 1990 the Academia Europaea council decided to sponsor a study group on education in modern European society funded by the Swedish Riksbankens Jubileumsfond. The report, in the form of this book, deals with many problem areas in European education; for example school quality, examinations, the teaching of foreign languages, and science education. It also analyses the role of the school as an institution in an increasingly complex technological and meritocratic society, and spells out the role of basic education in forming a European identity and consciousness.

In this, his most famous work, Marcel Mauss (1872-1950) presented to the world a book which revolutionized our understanding of some of the basic structures of society. A renowned anthropologist, Mauss sought in this work to transcend empirical observation and reach deeper realities. In so doing, he inaugurated a new era for the social sciences.;By identifying the complex web of exchange and obligation involved in the act of giving, Mauss called into question many of our social conventions and economic systems. As L'evi-Strauss remarked, "Few have managed to read it without feeling the whole gamut of the emotions: the pounding heart, the throbbing head, the mind flooded with the imperious, though not yet definable, certainty of being present at a decisive event in the evolution of science."

A brilliant example of the comparative method, ?The Gift? presents the first systematic study of the custom widespread in primitive societies from ancient Rome to present-day Melanesia of exchanging gifts. The gift is a perfect example of what Mauss calls a total social phenomenon, since it involves legal, economic, moral, religious, aesthetic, and other dimensions. He sees the gift exchange as related to individuals and groups as much as to the objects themselves, and his analysis calls into question the social conventions and economic systems that had been taken for granted for so many years. In a modern translation, introduced by distinguished anthropologist Mary Douglas, ?The Gift ?is essential reading for students of social anthropology and sociology."

This is the first work in English or French to deal comprehensively with the attitudes and activities of Christians, both Catholic and Protestant, in France during the Vichy regime and under the German yoke. The author shows how Christians reacted to Marshal Pé tain and the Laval government, as well as to the Allies, the Germans, the Resistance and the Vatican. The trauma of the treatment of the Jews, which eventually acted upon the Church as a catalyst, is assessed in detail since it represented a turning-point in Christian attitudes. This rigorous examination of one of history's darkest periods provides a wealth of new material on matters hotly debated at the Liberation including:
- the Vichy regime's slide into near-fascism;
- the persecution of the Jews;
- the attempted regimentation of youth and trade unions;
- resistance to, or collaboration with, the enemy; and
- the paramountcy of conscience for Christians.

This is the first work in English or French to deal comprehensively with the attitudes and activities of Christians, both Catholic and Protestant, in France during the Vichy regime and under the German yoke. The author shows how Christians reacted to Marshal Petain and the Laval government, as well as to the Allies, the Germans, the Resistance and the Vatican. The trauma of the treatment of the Jews, which eventually acted upon the Church as a catalyst, is assessed in detail since it represented a turning-point in Christian attitudes. This rigorous examination of one of history's darkest periods provides a wealth of new material on matters hotly debated at the Liberation including:
- the Vichy regime's slide into near-fascism;
- the persecution of the Jews;
- the attempted regimentation of youth and trade unions;
- resistance to, or collaboration with, the enemy; and
- the paramountcy of conscience for Christians.

In this, his most famous work, Marcel Mauss presented to the world a book which revolutionized our understanding of some of the basic structures of society. By identifying the complex web of exchange and obligation involved in the act of giving, Mauss called into question many of our social conventions and economic systems. In a world rife with runaway consumption, The Gift continues to excite and challenge.

Table of Contents

Preface Acknowledgments Overview of the principle concepts of language testing Basic statistics and SPSS Validity Reliability Assessing reading Assessing writing Assessing oral proficiency Appendix: Selected standardized tests References Index