Julian (Flavius Claudius Iulianus) "the Apostate," Roman Emperor, lived 331 or 332 to 363 CE. Born and educated in Constantinople as a Christian, after a precarious childhood he devoted himself to literature and philosophy and became a pagan, studying in various Greek cities. In 355 his cousin Emperor Constantius called him from Athens to the court at Milan, entitled him "Caesar," and made him governor of Gaul. Julian restored Gaul to prosperity and good government after the ravages of the Alamanni (he overthrew them at the battle of Strassburg in 357) and other Germans. Between 357 and 361 Julian's own soldiers, refusing to serve in the East at Constantius's orders, nearly involved Julian in war with Constantius--who however died in 361 so that Julian became sole Emperor of the Roman world. He began many reforms and proclaimed universal toleration in religion but pressed for the restoration of the older pagan worships. In 362-363 he prepared at Constantinople and then at Antioch for his expedition against Persia ruled by Shapur II. He died of a wound received in desperate battle.

Julian's surviving works (lost are his "Commentaries" on his western campaigns), all in Greek, are given in the Loeb Classical Library in three volumes. The eight "Orations" (1-5 in Volume I, 6-8 in Volume II) include two in praise of Constantius, one praising Constantius's wife Eusebia, and two theosophical hymns (in prose) or declamations, of interest for studies in neo-Platonism, Mithraism, and the cult of the Magna Mater in the Roman world. The satirical "Caesars" and "Misopogon," Beard-hater, are also in Volume II. "The Letters" (more than eighty, Volume III) include edicts or rescripts, mostlyabout Christians, encyclical or pastoral letters to priests, and private letters. Lastly in Volume III are the fragments of the work "Against the Galilaeans" (the Christians), written mainly to show that evidence for the idea of Christianity is lacking in the Old Testament.

Julian (Flavius Claudius Iulianus) "the Apostate," Roman Emperor, lived 331 or 332 to 363 CE. Born and educated in Constantinople as a Christian, after a precarious childhood he devoted himself to literature and philosophy and became a pagan, studying in various Greek cities. In 355 his cousin Emperor Constantius called him from Athens to the court at Milan, entitled him "Caesar," and made him governor of Gaul. Julian restored Gaul to prosperity and good government after the ravages of the Alamanni (he overthrew them at the battle of Strassburg in 357) and other Germans. Between 357 and 361 Julian's own soldiers, refusing to serve in the East at Constantius's orders, nearly involved Julian in war with Constantius--who however died in 361 so that Julian became sole Emperor of the Roman world. He began many reforms and proclaimed universal toleration in religion but pressed for the restoration of the older pagan worships. In 362-363 he prepared at Constantinople and then at Antioch for his expedition against Persia ruled by Shapur II. He died of a wound received in desperate battle.

Julian's surviving works (lost are his "Commentaries" on his western campaigns), all in Greek, are given in the Loeb Classical Library in three volumes. The eight "Orations" (1-5 in Volume I, 6-8 in Volume II) include two in praise of Constantius, one praising Constantius's wife Eusebia, and two theosophical hymns (in prose) or declamations, of interest for studies in neo-Platonism, Mithraism, and the cult of the Magna Mater in the Roman world. The satirical "Caesars" and "Misopogon," Beard-hater, are also in Volume II. "The Letters" (more than eighty, Volume III) include edicts or rescripts, mostlyabout Christians, encyclical or pastoral letters to priests, and private letters. Lastly in Volume III are the fragments of the work "Against the Galilaeans" (the Christians), written mainly to show that evidence for the idea of Christianity is lacking in the Old Testament.

Julian (Flavius Claudius Iulianus) "the Apostate," Roman Emperor, lived 331 or 332 to 363 CE. Born and educated in Constantinople as a Christian, after a precarious childhood he devoted himself to literature and philosophy and became a pagan, studying in various Greek cities. In 355 his cousin Emperor Constantius called him from Athens to the court at Milan, entitled him "Caesar," and made him governor of Gaul. Julian restored Gaul to prosperity and good government after the ravages of the Alamanni (he overthrew them at the battle of Strassburg in 357) and other Germans. Between 357 and 361 Julian's own soldiers, refusing to serve in the East at Constantius's orders, nearly involved Julian in war with Constantius--who however died in 361 so that Julian became sole Emperor of the Roman world. He began many reforms and proclaimed universal toleration in religion but pressed for the restoration of the older pagan worships. In 362-363 he prepared at Constantinople and then at Antioch for his expedition against Persia ruled by Shapur II. He died of a wound received in desperate battle.

Julian's surviving works (lost are his "Commentaries" on his western campaigns), all in Greek, are given in the Loeb Classical Library in three volumes. The eight "Orations" (1-5 in Volume I, 6-8 in Volume II) include two in praise of Constantius, one praising Constantius's wife Eusebia, and two theosophical hymns (in prose) or declamations, of interest for studies in neo-Platonism, Mithraism, and the cult of the Magna Mater in the Roman world. The satirical "Caesars" and "Misopogon," Beard-hater, are also in Volume II. "The Letters" (more than eighty, Volume III) include edicts or rescripts, mostlyabout Christians, encyclical or pastoral letters to priests, and private letters. Lastly in Volume III are the fragments of the work "Against the Galilaeans" (the Christians), written mainly to show that evidence for the idea of Christianity is lacking in the Old Testament.

Of the distinguished Lemnian family of Philostrati, Flavius Philostratus 'the Athenian', ca. 170-205 CE, was a Greek sophist who studied at Athens and later lived in Rome. He was author of the admirable "Life of Apollonius of Tyana" (Loeb nos. 16 and 17) and of "Lives of the Sophists," a treasury of information about notable sophists. Philostratus's sketches of sophists in action yield a fascinating picture of the predominant influence of Sophistic in the educational, social, and political life of the Empire in the second and third centuries.

The Greek sophist and historian Eunapius was born at Sardis in 347 CE, but went to Athens to study and lived much of his life there teaching rhetoric and possibly medicine. He was initiated into the mysteries and was hostile to Christians. His "Lives of Philosophers and Sophists" (mainly contemporary with himself) is our only source for knowledge of Neo-Platonism in the latter part of the fourth century.