This book provides a comprehensive, up-to-date look at problem solving research and practice over the last fifteen years. The first chapter describes differences in types of problems, individual differences among problem-solvers, as well as the domain and context within which a problem is being solved. Part one describes six kinds of problems and the methods required to solve them. Part two goes beyond traditional discussions of case design and introduces six different purposes or functions of cases, the building blocks of problem-solving learning environments. It also describes methods for constructing cases to support problem solving. Part three introduces a number of cognitive skills required for studying cases and solving problems. Finally, Part four describes several methods for assessing problem solving. Key features includes:

• Teaching Focus - The book is not merely a review of research. It also provides specific research-based advice on how to design problem-solving learning environments.
• Illustrative Cases - A rich array of cases illustrates how to build problem-solving learning environments. Part two introduces six different functions of cases and also describes the parameters of a case.
• Chapter Integration - Key theories and concepts are addressed across chapters and links to other chapters are made explicit. The idea is to show how different kinds of problems, cases, skills, and assessments are integrated.
• Author expertise - A prolific researcher and writer, the author has been researching and publishing books and articles on learning to solve problems for the past fifteen years.

This book is appropriate for advanced courses in instructional design and technology, science education, applied cognitive psychology, thinking and reasoning, and educational psychology. Instructional designers, especially those involved in designing problem-based learning, as well as curriculum designers who seek new ways of structuring curriculum will find it an invaluable reference tool.

Problem solving is implicit in the very nature of all science, and virtually all scientists are hired, retained, and rewarded for solving problems. Although the need for skilled problem solvers has never been greater, there is a growing disconnect between the need for problem solvers and the educational capacity to prepare them. "Learning to Solve Complex Scientific Problems "is an immensely useful read offering the insights of cognitive scientists and engineering and science educators who explain methods for helping students solve the complexities of everyday, scientific problems.
 
Important features of this volume include discussions on:
*how problems are represented by the problem solvers and how perception, attention, memory, and various forms of reasoning impact the management of information and the search for solutions;
*how academics have applied lessons from cognitive science to better prepare students to solve complex scientific problems;
*gender issues in science and engineering classrooms; and
*questions to guide future problem-solving research.
 
The innovative methods explored in this practical volume will be of significant value to science and engineering educators and researchers, as well as to instructional designers.

"Task Analysis Methods for Instructional Design" is a handbook of task analysis and knowledge elicitation methods that can be used for designing direct instruction, performance support, and learner-centered learning environments.
To design any kind of instruction, it is necessary to articulate a model of how learners should think and perform. This book provides descriptions and examples of five different kinds of task analysis methods:
*job/behavioral analysis;
*learning analysis;
*cognitive task analysis;
*activity-based analysis methods; and
*subject matter analysis.
Chapters follow a standard format making them useful for reference, instruction, or performance support.

"Task Analysis Methods for Instructional Design" is a handbook of task analysis and knowledge elicitation methods that can be used for designing direct instruction, performance support, and learner-centered learning environments.
To design any kind of instruction, it is necessary to articulate a model of how learners should think and perform. This book provides descriptions and examples of five different kinds of task analysis methods:
*job/behavioral analysis;
*learning analysis;
*cognitive task analysis;
*activity-based analysis methods; and
*subject matter analysis.
Chapters follow a standard format making them useful for reference, instruction, or performance support.

Written for teachers, trainers, and instructional designers -- anyone who is responsible for designing or preparing instruction -- this book begins with one basic premise: individual differences mediate learning at all levels and in all situations. That is, some learners find it easier or more difficult to learn some skills or to learn from certain forms of instruction because they vary in terms of aptitude, cognitive styles, personality, or learning styles. This volume describes most of the major differences in a readable and accessible way and demonstrates how to design various forms of instruction and predict the ease with which learners will acquire different skills. Most books that discuss any learner differences focus on those that characterize special education populations, whereas this book focuses on normal learners.
Designed as a handbook, this volume is structured to provide easy and consistent access to information and answers, and prescriptions and hypotheses. When definitive answers are not possible because there is no research documentation, the authors suggest theories designed to stimulate future research.

Written for teachers, trainers, and instructional designers -- anyone who is responsible for designing or preparing instruction -- this book begins with one basic premise: individual differences mediate learning at all levels and in all situations. That is, some learners find it easier or more difficult to learn some skills or to learn from certain forms of instruction because they vary in terms of aptitude, cognitive styles, personality, or learning styles. This volume describes most of the major differences in a readable and accessible way and demonstrates how to design various forms of instruction and predict the ease with which learners will acquire different skills. Most books that discuss any learner differences focus on those that characterize special education populations, whereas this book focuses on normal learners.
Designed as a handbook, this volume is structured to provide easy and consistent access to information and answers, and prescriptions and hypotheses. When definitive answers are not possible because there is no research documentation, the authors suggest theories designed to stimulate future research.

This book introduces the concept of a hypothetical type of knowledge construction -- referred to as structural knowledge -- that goes beyond traditional forms of information recall to provide the bases for knowledge application. Assuming that the validity of the concept is accepted, the volume functions as a handbook for supporting the assessment and use of structural knowledge in learning and instructional settings. It's descriptions are direct and short, and its structure is consistent. Almost all of the chapters describe a technique for representing and assessing structural knowledge acquisition, conveying knowledge structures through direct instruction, or providing learners with strategies that they may use to acquire structural knowledge. These chapters include the following sections in the same sequence: * description of the technique and its theoretical or conceptual rationale * examples and applications * procedures for development and use * effectiveness -- learner interactions and differences, and advantages and disadvantages * references to the literature. The chapters are structured to facilitate access to information as well as to illuminate comparisons and contrasts among the techniques.

This book introduces the concept of a hypothetical type of knowledge construction -- referred to as structural knowledge -- that goes beyond traditional forms of information recall to provide the bases for knowledge application. Assuming that the validity of the concept is accepted, the volume functions as a handbook for supporting the assessment and use of structural knowledge in learning and instructional settings. It's descriptions are direct and short, and its structure is consistent. Almost all of the chapters describe a technique for representing and assessing structural knowledge acquisition, conveying knowledge structures through direct instruction, or providing learners with strategies that they may use to acquire structural knowledge. These chapters include the following sections in the same sequence: * description of the technique and its theoretical or conceptual rationale * examples and applications * procedures for development and use * effectiveness -- learner interactions and differences, and advantages and disadvantages * references to the literature. The chapters are structured to facilitate access to information as well as to illuminate comparisons and contrasts among the techniques.

This book is about the implications of constructivism for instructional design practices, and more importantly, it is about a dialogue between instructional developers and learning theorists. Working with colleagues in each discipline, the editors were amazed to find a general lack of familiarity with each others' work. From an instructional design perspective, it seems that the practice of instructional design must be based on some conception of how people learn and what it means to learn. From a learning theory perspective, it seems obvious that the value of learning theory rests in the ability to predict the impact of alternative learning environments or instructional practices on what is learned. Thus the interchange of ideas between these disciplines is essential. As a consequence of both the information rich environment and the technological capability, business is seen moving away from a fixed curriculum and toward providing information and instruction when it is needed. These changes bring about a window of opportunity establishing a dialogue that will provide for a richer understanding of learning and the instructional environment required to achieve that learning. The editors hope that this book is the beginning of the conversation and that it will serve to spur continued conversation between those involved in learning theory and those involved in the design of instruction.

This book is about the implications of constructivism for instructional design practices, and more importantly, it is about a dialogue between instructional developers and learning theorists. Working with colleagues in each discipline, the editors were amazed to find a general lack of familiarity with each others' work. From an instructional design perspective, it seems that the practice of instructional design must be based on some conception of how people learn and what it means to learn. From a learning theory perspective, it seems obvious that the value of learning theory rests in the ability to predict the impact of alternative learning environments or instructional practices on what is learned. Thus the interchange of ideas between these disciplines is essential. As a consequence of both the information rich environment and the technological capability, business is seen moving away from a fixed curriculum and toward providing information and instruction when it is needed. These changes bring about a window of opportunity establishing a dialogue that will provide for a richer understanding of learning and the instructional environment required to achieve that learning. The editors hope that this book is the beginning of the conversation and that it will serve to spur continued conversation between those involved in learning theory and those involved in the design of instruction.

Hypermedia technology needs a creative approach from the outset in the design of software to facilitate human thinking and learning. This book opens a discussion of the potential of hypermedia and related approaches to provide open exploratory learning environments. The papers in the book are based on contributions to a NATO Advanced Research Workshop held in July1990 and are grouped into six sections: - Semantic networking as cognitive tools, - Expert systems as cognitive tools, - Hypertext as cognitive tools, - Collaborative communication tools, - Microworlds: context-dependent cognitive tools, - Implementing cognitive tools. The book will be valuable for those who design, implement and evaluate learning programs and who seek to escape from rigid tactics like programmed instruction and behavioristic approaches. The book presents principles for exploratory systems that go beyond existing metaphors of instruction and provokes the reader to think in a new way about the cognitive level of human-computer interaction.

The idea for this book grew out of a NATO Advanced Research Workshop held at the Catholic University at Leuven, Belgium. We are grateful to NATO for support in conducting this workshop and for support in the preparation of this book. We are particularly grateful for their emphasis on designing the workshop to build collegiality. They suggested that we hold the meeting in a small town and that we organize evening activities to keep the group together and to promote informal and extended discussions. What sage advice. The excitement grew over the three days as we shared understandings and enriched our perspectives. Indeed, there was even a proclaimed "near" conversion to a constructivist perspective from one colleague trained in traditional instructional design methods. While we report this as a bit of a humorous anecdote, it most clearly reflects the sense of excitement that developed. We would also like to thank the staff at the Catholic University for their great support during the workshop. Their efforts and their good cheer were important components in the success of the meeting. In particular we would like to thank Jan Elen, Catherine Vermunicht and Jef Vanden Branden. Finally we would like to thank the personnel at Indiana University for their help in assembling this book. Deborah Shaw prepared the index. We thank her for the skill and speed with which she was able to work.

This most unusual book results from the NATO Advanced Research Work shop, "Designing Hypertext/Hypermedia for Learning", held in Rottenburg am Neckar, FRO, from July 3-8, 1989. The idea for the workshop resulted from the burgeoning interest in hypertext combined with the frustrating lack of literature on leaming applications for hypertext. There was little evidence in 1988 that hypertext could successfully support learning out comes. A few projects were investigating hypertext for learning, but few conclusions were available and little if any advice on how to design hyper text for learning applications was available. Could hypertext support learning objectives? What mental processing requirements are unique to learning outcomes? How would the processing requirements of learning outcomes interact with unique user processing requirements of browsing and constructing hypertext? Should hypertext information bases be restruc tured to accommodate learning outcomes? Should the user interface be manipulated in order to support the task functionality of learning outcomes? Does the hypertext structure reflect the intellectual requirements of learning outcomes? What kinds of learning-oriented hypertext systems were being developed and what kinds of assumptions were these systems making? These and other questions demonstrated the need for this workshop. The workshop included presentations, hardware demonstrations, sharing and browsing of hypertexts, and much discussion about all of the above. These were the experiences that you, the reader of this book, unfortunately did not experience.

This book provides a comprehensive, up-to-date look at problem solving research and practice over the last fifteen years. The first chapter describes differences in types of problems, individual differences among problem-solvers, as well as the domain and context within which a problem is being solved. Part one describes six kinds of problems and the methods required to solve them. Part two goes beyond traditional discussions of case design and introduces six different purposes or functions of cases, the building blocks of problem-solving learning environments. It also describes methods for constructing cases to support problem solving. Part three introduces a number of cognitive skills required for studying cases and solving problems. Finally, Part four describes several methods for assessing problem solving. Key features includes: Teaching Focus - The book is not merely a review of research. It also provides specific research-based advice on how to design problem-solving learning environments. Illustrative Cases - A rich array of cases illustrates how to build problem-solving learning environments. Part two introduces six different functions of cases and also describes the parameters of a case. Chapter Integration - Key theories and concepts are addressed across chapters and links to other chapters are made explicit. The idea is to show how different kinds of problems, cases, skills, and assessments are integrated. Author expertise - A prolific researcher and writer, the author has been researching and publishing books and articles on learning to solve problems for the past fifteen years. This book is appropriate for advanced courses in instructional design and technology, science education, applied cognitive psychology, thinking and reasoning, and educational psychology. Instructional designers, especially those involved in designing problem-based learning, as well as curriculum designers who seek new ways of structuring curriculum will find it an invaluable reference tool.

This volume presents a process for developing expert systems. As the field of instructional technology matures it is becoming clear that technological process, not technological devices, is the single most important factor in designing effective instruction. Computers as devices are helpful, but their primary advantage may be the discipline placed on thinking and design processes by using them. The process used when examining a problem determines the quality of information entered into a program and the ultimate effectiveness of the solution. The process in this volume is intended for small-scale expert system solutions that contribute to the solution of instructional problems. Hardware independent, the volume focuses on narrowly defined examples intended for small personal computer systems. Particular attention is paid to problems associated with education and training.

"Building Expert Systems in Training and Education" has one primary function: to help instructional designers derive the components of a problem and enter it into an expert system shell. It is totally process-oriented and focuses on the front-end knowledge engineering process. It provides a repertoire of practical tools and processes that can be used to select, define, and structure problems. Three types of examples are used to illustrate three ways to use expert systems: for instructional support, for instructional decision making, and for an instructional job aid. Each chapter is followed by a list of learning activities to facilitate practice and consolidation. When appropriate, answers or examples to the learning activities is given. This is a practical guide for instructional technology educators and students, and business and industrial training professionals.

Task Analysis is not only the most important component of Instructional Design but also the most often misconstrued and poorly executed. Starting with this premise these authors have developed a complete reference and instructional text on Task Analysis. The "Handbook of Task Analysis ProcedureS" fulfills three distinct purposes. As an overview of the field it presents a comprehensive collection of functions, techniques and tools that can be used in a variety of settings. Thirty-five different procedures are cataloged and described in individual chapters. Providing flowcharts and examples, it is organized to instruct the reader on how to perform these techniques. Finally all chapters have been consistently structed making it an ideal reference book.

"Handbook of Task Analysis ProcedureS" is designed to help the reader select a specific task analysis technique for a particular situation. Having done this, the reader can then refer to the appropriate chapter for his chosen technique. This chapter provides a statement of purpose, an overview, and applications. It then presents a step by step description of how to use the procedure. The chapter concludes with examples, an evaluation, and a complete set of references. Designed to be used in education and by trainers in the business sector, this volume is a unique reference book. Part I provides an overview of Task Analysis and describes the variables that affect how task analysis is performed. A decision table and discussion help the reader select specific techniques. The techniques are grouped in Part II, III, and IV according to their functional similarity--learning analysis, job analysis, content analysis. Part V describes information gathering tools. This Handbook is essential for the reader who believes that competent task analysis is a vital part of instructional design.

Problem solving is implicit in the very nature of all science, and virtually all scientists are hired, retained, and rewarded for solving problems. Although the need for skilled problem solvers has never been greater, there is a growing disconnect between the need for problem solvers and the educational capacity to prepare them. "Learning to Solve Complex Scientific Problems "is an immensely useful read offering the insights of cognitive scientists and engineering and science educators who explain methods for helping students solve the complexities of everyday, scientific problems.
 
Important features of this volume include discussions on:
*how problems are represented by the problem solvers and how perception, attention, memory, and various forms of reasoning impact the management of information and the search for solutions;
*how academics have applied lessons from cognitive science to better prepare students to solve complex scientific problems;
*gender issues in science and engineering classrooms; and
*questions to guide future problem-solving research.
 
The innovative methods explored in this practical volume will be of significant value to science and engineering educators and researchers, as well as to instructional designers.