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Short Historical Overview In the 1940s, two phenomena in the ?eld
of cosmic rays (CR) forced scientists to think that the Sun is a
powerful source of high-energy particles. One of these was
discovered because of the daily solar variation of CR, which the
maximum number of CR observed near noon (referring to the existence
of continuous ?ux of CR from the direction of the Sun); this became
the experimental basis of the theory that CR's originate from the
Sun (or, for that matter, from within the solar system) (Alfven
1954). The second phenomenon was discovered when large ?uxes of
high energy particles were detected from several solar ?ares, or
solar CR. These are the - called ground level events (GLE), and
were ?rst observed by ionization chambers shielded by 10 cm Pb (and
detected mainly from the secondary muon-component CR that they
caused) during the events of the 28th of February 1942, the 7th of
March 1942, the 25th of July 1946, and the 19th of November 1949.
The biggest such event was detected on the 23rd of February 1956
(see the detailed description in Chapters X and XI of Dorman,
M1957). The ?rst phenomenon was investigated in detail in Dorman
(M1957), by ?rst correcting experimental data on muon temperature
effects and then by using coupling functions to determine the
change in particle energy caused by the solar-diurnal CR variation.
Chapter 1 briefly describes the main properties of space plasmas
and primary CR. Chapter 2 considers the problem of CR propagation
in space plasmas described by the kinetic equation and different
types of diffusion approximations. Chapter 3 is devoted to CR
non-linear effects in space plasmas caused by CR pressure and CR
kinetic stream instabilities with the generation of Alfven
turbulence. In Chapter 4 different processes of CR acceleration in
space plasmas are considered. The book ends with a list providing
more than 1,300 full references, a discussion on future
developments and unsolved problems, as well as Object and Author
indexes.
The present monograph as well as the next one (Dorman, M2005) is a
result of more than 50 years working in cosmic ray (CR) research.
After graduation in December 1950 Moscow Lomonosov State University
(Nuclear and Elementary Particle Physics Division, the Team of
Theoretical Physics), my supervisor Professor D. I. Blokhintsev
planned for me, as a winner of a Red Diploma, to continue my
education as an aspirant (a graduate student) to prepare for Ph. D.
in his very secret Object in the framework of what was in those
time called the Atomic Problem. To my regret the KGB withheld
permission, and I, together with other Jewish students who had
graduated Nuclear Divisions of Moscow and Leningrad Universities
and Institutes, were faced with a real prospect of being without
any work. It was our good fortune that at that time there was being
brought into being the new Cosmic Ray Project (what at that time
was also very secret, but not as secret as the Atomic Problem), and
after some time we were directed to work on this Project. It was
organized and headed by Prof. S. N. Vernov (President of All-Union
Section of Cosmic Rays) and Prof. N. V. Pushkov (Director of
IZMIRAN); Prof. E. L. Feinberg headed the theoretical part of the
Project.
The problem of cosmic ray (CR) geomagnetic effects came to the fore
at the beg- ning of the 1930s after the famous expeditions by J.
Clay onboard ship (Slamat) between the Netherlands and Java using
an ionization chamber. Many CR la- tude expeditions were organized
by the famous scientists and Nobel Laureates R. Millikan and A.
Compton. From the obtained latitude curves it follows that CRs
cannot be gamma rays (as many scientists thought at that time), but
must be charged particles. From measurements of azimuthally
geomagnetic effect at that time it also followed that these charged
particles must be mostly positive (see Chapter 1, and for more
details on the history of the problem see monographs of Irina
Dorman, M1981, M1989). The ?rst explanations of obtained results
were based on the simple dipole - proximation of the geomagnetic
?eld and the theory of energetic charged particles moving in dipole
magnetic ?elds, developed in 1907 by C. Stormer ] to explain the
aurora phenomenon. Let us note that it was made about 5 years
before V. Hess discovered CRs, and received the Nobel Prize in 1936
together with K. Anderson (for the discovery of CR and positrons in
CR)."
Short Historical Overview In the 1940s, two phenomena in the ?eld
of cosmic rays (CR) forced scientists to think that the Sun is a
powerful source of high-energy particles. One of these was
discovered because of the daily solar variation of CR, which the
maximum number of CR observed near noon (referring to the existence
of continuous ?ux of CR from the direction of the Sun); this became
the experimental basis of the theory that CR's originate from the
Sun (or, for that matter, from within the solar system) (Alfven
1954). The second phenomenon was discovered when large ?uxes of
high energy particles were detected from several solar ?ares, or
solar CR. These are the - called ground level events (GLE), and
were ?rst observed by ionization chambers shielded by 10 cm Pb (and
detected mainly from the secondary muon-component CR that they
caused) during the events of the 28th of February 1942, the 7th of
March 1942, the 25th of July 1946, and the 19th of November 1949.
The biggest such event was detected on the 23rd of February 1956
(see the detailed description in Chapters X and XI of Dorman,
M1957). The ?rst phenomenon was investigated in detail in Dorman
(M1957), by ?rst correcting experimental data on muon temperature
effects and then by using coupling functions to determine the
change in particle energy caused by the solar-diurnal CR
variation."
The problem of cosmic ray (CR) geomagnetic effects came to the fore
at the beg- ning of the 1930s after the famous expeditions by J.
Clay onboard ship (Slamat) between the Netherlands and Java using
an ionization chamber. Many CR la- tude expeditions were organized
by the famous scientists and Nobel Laureates R. Millikan and A.
Compton. From the obtained latitude curves it follows that CRs
cannot be gamma rays (as many scientists thought at that time), but
must be charged particles. From measurements of azimuthally
geomagnetic effect at that time it also followed that these charged
particles must be mostly positive (see Chapter 1, and for more
details on the history of the problem see monographs of Irina
Dorman, M1981, M1989). The ?rst explanations of obtained results
were based on the simple dipole - proximation of the geomagnetic
?eld and the theory of energetic charged particles moving in dipole
magnetic ?elds, developed in 1907 by C. Stormer ] to explain the
aurora phenomenon. Let us note that it was made about 5 years
before V. Hess discovered CRs, and received the Nobel Prize in 1936
together with K. Anderson (for the discovery of CR and positrons in
CR)."
The book consists of four Chapters. Chapter 1 shortly describes
main properties of space plasmas and primary CR, different types of
CR interactions with space plasmas components (matter, photons, and
frozen in magnetic fields). Chapter 2 considers the problem of CR
propagation in space plasmas described by the kinetic equation and
different types of diffusion approximations (diffusion in momentum
space and in pitch-angle space, anisotropic diffusion, anomaly CR
diffusion and compound diffusion, the influence of magnetic clouds
on CR propagation, non-diffusive CR particle pulse transport).
Chapter 3 is devoted to CR non-linear effects in space plasmas
caused by CR pressure and CR kinetic stream instabilities with the
generation of Alfven turbulence (these effects are important in
galaxies, in the Heliosphere, in CR and gamma-ray sources and in
the processes of CR acceleration). considered: the development of
the Fermi statistical mechanism, acceleration in the turbulent
plasma, Alfven mechanism of magnetic pumping, induction mechanisms,
acceleration during magnetic collapse and compression, cumulative
acceleration mechanism near the zero lines of a magnetic field,
acceleration in shear flows, shock-wave diffusion (regular)
acceleration. The book ends with a list providing more than 1,300
full references, a discussion on future developments and unsolved
problems, as well as Object and Author indexes. This book will be
useful for experts and students in CR research, Astrophysics and
Geophysics, and in Space Physics.
The present monograph as well as the next one (Dorman, M2005) is a
result of more than 50 years working in cosmic ray (CR) research.
After graduation in December 1950 Moscow Lomonosov State University
(Nuclear and Elementary Particle Physics Division, the Team of
Theoretical Physics), my supervisor Professor D. I. Blokhintsev
planned for me, as a winner of a Red Diploma, to continue my
education as an aspirant (a graduate student) to prepare for Ph. D.
in his very secret Object in the framework of what was in those
time called the Atomic Problem. To my regret the KGB withheld
permission, and I, together with other Jewish students who had
graduated Nuclear Divisions of Moscow and Leningrad Universities
and Institutes, were faced with a real prospect of being without
any work. It was our good fortune that at that time there was being
brought into being the new Cosmic Ray Project (what at that time
was also very secret, but not as secret as the Atomic Problem), and
after some time we were directed to work on this Project. It was
organized and headed by Prof. S. N. Vernov (President of All-Union
Section of Cosmic Rays) and Prof. N. V. Pushkov (Director of
IZMIRAN); Prof. E. L. Feinberg headed the theoretical part of the
Project.
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