'The continued poverty of the majority of the planet's inhabitants and excessive consumption by the minority are the two major causes of environmental degradation The present course is unsustainable and postponing action is no longer an option. Inspired political leadership and intense cooperation across all regions and sectors will be needed to put both existing and new policy instruments to work. ' From the Synthesis Global Environment Outlook 2000 (GEO-2000) is a comprehensive and authoritative review and analysis of environmental conditions around the world. It is the flagship publication of the world's leading environmental organization, the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), and is based on information provided by more than 30 regional and international collaborating centres. The book presents a region-by-region analysis of the state of the world's environment, highlighting key global concerns and making recommendations for policy action. The regions covered include Africa, Asia and the Pacific, Europe and Central Asia, Latin America and the Caribbean, North America, West Asia and the Polar Areas. Chapter 1: Global Perspectives describes the main drivers of environmental change, such as the economy, population growth, political organization and regionalization, as well as potential impacts of recent global developments including the growth of the consumer culture, trade and international debt. Chapter 2: The State of the Environment provides a global and region-by-region overview of the environment at the end of the second millennium. The chapter covers global issues such as ozone, climate change, El Nifio and nitrogen loading, and universal issues of land and food, forests, biodiversity, freshwater, marine and coastal areas, atmosphere and urban areas. Chapter 3: Policy Responses reviews the broad range of policy instruments and responses being used to address environmental issues, including multilateral environmental agreements, and analyses the difficulties of compliance, implementation and assessment. Chapter 4: Future Perspectives looks at environmental issues that will require priority attention in the 21st century and some alternative policy options that could be used in the regions. Chapter 5: Outlook and Recommendations makes recommendations for future action based on the environmental legacy left by past and present policy and management systems. GEO-2000 will be the benchmark reference and guide to the state of the global environment. Written in clear, non-technical language and supported throughout by informative graphics and tables, it is essential reading for all those involved in environmental policy making, implementation and assessment, and for researchers and students of regional and global environmental issues. Originally published in 1999

'The continued poverty of the majority of the planet's inhabitants and excessive consumption by the minority are the two major causes of environmental degradation The present course is unsustainable and postponing action is no longer an option. Inspired political leadership and intense cooperation across all regions and sectors will be needed to put both existing and new policy instruments to work. ' From the Synthesis Global Environment Outlook 2000 (GEO-2000) is a comprehensive and authoritative review and analysis of environmental conditions around the world. It is the flagship publication of the world's leading environmental organization, the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), and is based on information provided by more than 30 regional and international collaborating centres. The book presents a region-by-region analysis of the state of the world's environment, highlighting key global concerns and making recommendations for policy action. The regions covered include Africa, Asia and the Pacific, Europe and Central Asia, Latin America and the Caribbean, North America, West Asia and the Polar Areas. Chapter 1: Global Perspectives describes the main drivers of environmental change, such as the economy, population growth, political organization and regionalization, as well as potential impacts of recent global developments including the growth of the consumer culture, trade and international debt. Chapter 2: The State of the Environment provides a global and region-by-region overview of the environment at the end of the second millennium. The chapter covers global issues such as ozone, climate change, El Nifio and nitrogen loading, and universal issues of land and food, forests, biodiversity, freshwater, marine and coastal areas, atmosphere and urban areas. Chapter 3: Policy Responses reviews the broad range of policy instruments and responses being used to address environmental issues, including multilateral environmental agreements, and analyses the difficulties of compliance, implementation and assessment. Chapter 4: Future Perspectives looks at environmental issues that will require priority attention in the 21st century and some alternative policy options that could be used in the regions. Chapter 5: Outlook and Recommendations makes recommendations for future action based on the environmental legacy left by past and present policy and management systems. GEO-2000 will be the benchmark reference and guide to the state of the global environment. Written in clear, non-technical language and supported throughout by informative graphics and tables, it is essential reading for all those involved in environmental policy making, implementation and assessment, and for researchers and students of regional and global environmental issues. Originally published in 1999

'This is a strategy for a kind of development that provides real improvements in the quality of human life and at the same time conserves the vitality and diversity of the Earth. The goal is development that will be sustainable. Today it may seem visionary. but it is attainable. To more and more people it also appears our only rational option.' - from Chapter 1 in 1980, the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources, the United Nations Environment Programme and the World Wide Fund for Nature, the world's three most powerful organizations dedicated to preventing environmental catastrophe, published the World Conservation Strategy. It stressed the interdependence of conservation and development, it gave currency to the idea of sustainable development and it made the point that unless the vitality and productivity of the planet are safeguarded, the future for humanity is at risk. Its impact was immediate and worldwide. Now, ten years later, the same three organizations have formulated a new strategy for the 19905. Caring for the Earth builds on all that has been learned in the last decade about the complexity of the problems and shows how radical and far-reaching are the actions and objectives needed to meet them. Nothing less than a new ethic is required, based on affirming the community of life and cherishing its diversity - an ethic which has to be reflected in our personal attitudes and the organization of our communities as much as in wider policies. Public participation is essential for the success of the strategy, which is addressed to individuals and citizens' groups as well as to governments - whatever their systems. Adopting it will not be easy, but it does provide the agenda for immediate action. Originally published in 1991

'This is a strategy for a kind of development that provides real improvements in the quality of human life and at the same time conserves the vitality and diversity of the Earth. The goal is development that will be sustainable. Today it may seem visionary. but it is attainable. To more and more people it also appears our only rational option.' - from Chapter 1 in 1980, the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources, the United Nations Environment Programme and the World Wide Fund for Nature, the world's three most powerful organizations dedicated to preventing environmental catastrophe, published the World Conservation Strategy.

It stressed the interdependence of conservation and development, it gave currency to the idea of sustainable development and it made the point that unless the vitality and productivity of the planet are safeguarded, the future for humanity is at risk. Its impact was immediate and worldwide.

Now, ten years later, the same three organizations have formulated a new strategy for the 19905. Caring for the Earth builds on all that has been learned in the last decade about the complexity of the problems and shows how radical and far-reaching are the actions and objectives needed to meet them. Nothing less than a new ethic is required, based on affirming the community of life and cherishing its diversity - an ethic which has to be reflected in our personal attitudes and the organization of our communities as much as in wider policies. Public participation is essential for the success of the strategy, which is addressed to individuals and citizens' groups as well as to governments - whatever their systems. Adopting it will not be easy, but it does provide the agenda for immediate action. Originally published in 1991

This book is a product of the TEEB study (The Economics of Ecosystems and Biodiversity). It provides important evidence of growing corporate concern about biodiversity loss and offers examples of how leading companies are taking action to conserve biodiversity and to restore ecosystems. This book reviews indicators and drivers of biodiversity loss and ecosystem decline, and shows how these present both risks and opportunities to all businesses. It examines the changing preferences of consumers for nature-friendly products and services, and offers examples of how companies are responding. The book also describes recent initiatives to enable businesses to measure, value and report their impacts and dependencies on biodiversity and ecosystem services. The authors review a range of practical tools to manage biodiversity risks in business, with examples of how companies are using these tools to reduce costs, protect their brands and deliver real business value. The book also explores the emergence of new business models that deliver biodiversity benefits and ecosystem services on a commercial basis, the policy enabling frameworks needed to stimulate investment and entrepreneurship to realize such opportunities, and the obstacles that must be overcome. The book further examines how businesses can align their actions in relation to biodiversity and ecosystem services with other corporate responsibility initiatives, including community engagement and poverty reduction. Finally, the book concludes with a summary and recommendations for action.

This book is a further key output of TEEB (The Economics of Ecosystems and Biodiversity). It provides important new evidence of growing corporate concern about biodiversity loss and offers examples of how some leading companies are taking action to conserve biodiversity and to restore ecosystems. It reviews indicators and drivers of biodiversity loss and ecosystem decline, and shows how these present both risks and opportunities to business. It examines the changing preferences of consumers for nature-friendly products and services, and offers examples of how companies are responding. The book also describes recent initiatives to enable businesses to measure, value and report their impacts and dependencies on biodiversity and ecosystem services. A range of practical tools to manage biodiversity risks in business is reviewed, with examples of how some companies are using these tools to deliver added business value. It is shown how companies can take action to avoid, minimize and mitigate biodiversity and ecosystem service risks, using compensation ('offsets') where appropriate, based on the concept of Net Positive Impact. As a result they can grasp new business opportunities linked to biodiversity and ecosystem services, such as increasing cost-efficiencies, new products and new markets.The authors explore emerging business models that seek to deliver biodiversity benefits and ecosystem services on a commercial basis, the enabling frameworks needed to stimulate investment and entrepreneurship to realize such opportunities, and the obstacles that must be overcome. Overall, the book examines how businesses can align their actions in relation to biodiversity and ecosystem services with wider corporate social responsibility initiatives, including community engagement and poverty reduction.

IX The International Seminar on the Immunological System as a Target for Toxic Damage was held at The Commission of the European Communities (CEC) in Luxembourg on 6-9 November 1984. It was organized by the CEC and the International Programme on Chemical Safety of UNEP/ILO/WHO with the support of the u. S. Environmental Protection Agency and the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences - USA and with the participation of the International Society of Immunophar macology. These bodies are actively concerned with the scientific and applied aspects of immunotoxicology. The Seminar consisted of thirty-four invited papers and three major panel discussions covering current and future test strategies for the screening of immunotoxic substances, hypersensitivity and the health implications of immunotoxico logical problems. It was attended by more than 200 scien tists from 27 countries representing all the Member states of the European Economic Community and the six Regions of the World Health Organization. These scientists represented many different disciplines and interests. The Seminar's principal objectives were: a review of recent advances in knowledge concerning the structure, function and dysfunction of the immunological system; - a review of the effects of xenobiotics on the immune system in animals and humans; an examination of the human health implications of immunotoxicity; discussion and critical analysis of the procedures for the assessment of immunological damage, a discussion of needs for the further development of laboratory and epidemiological methods and their validation, and a consideration of current test strategies."

This publication seeks to provide a framework for selecting and validating biomarkers for risk assessment. Initial chapters consider the role of biomarkers in risk assessment and their validity. A biomarker is any substance, structure or process that can be measured in the body or its products, and influence or predict the incidence of outcome or disease. Biomarkers can be classified into markers of exposure, effect and susceptibility. If biomarkers are to contribute to environmental and occupational health risk assessments, they have to be relevant and valid. Relevance refers to the appropriateness of biomarkers to provide information on questions of interest and importance to public and environmental health authorities and other decision-makers. The validity of a biomarker is a function of intrinsic qualities of the biomarker and characteristics of the analytic procedures. Additionally, three broad categories of validity can be distinguished: measurement validity, internal study validity and external validity. Measurement validity is the degree to which a biomarker indicates what it purports to indicate. Internal study validity is the degree to which inferences drawn from a study actually pertain to study subjects and are true. External validity is the extent to which findings of a study can be generalized to apply to other populations. Subsequent chapters examine the validation of specific types of biomarkers and cross-species comparability. Supporting the main text are four extensive appendices covering the following subjects: 1. Biomarkers of exposure and effect for carcinogenicity 2. Biomarkers of exposure and effect for non-carcinogenic end-points 3. Measurement of drug metabolizing enzyme polymorphisms as indicators of susceptibility 4. Validation of biomarkers for environmental health research and risk assessment

This publication summarizes the scientific knowledge base on which principles and methods involved in neurotoxicity risk assessment are based. It is aimed at providing a framework for public health officials, research and regulatory scientists and risk managers on the use and interpretation of neurotoxicity data from human and animal studies and it discusses emerging methodological approaches to studying neurotoxicity. The introductory chapter examines definitions and critical concepts in neurotoxicity and looks at the criteria for quality of data used in risk assessment. This is followed by a detailed discussion of the structure and function of the nervous system, of the special susceptibilities of the human fetus, children and the elderly and of the types of effects on the nervous system. Recent progress in developing validated methods for detecting neurotoxicity in humans is investigated, as is our understanding of the factors that affect the validity and reliability of human neurotoxicological studies. Sources of human data include accidental and occupational exposures, case-studies, clinical evaluations, epidemiological studies, and field and laboratory studies. Standardized neuropsychological tests, validated computer-assisted test batteries, neurophysiological and biochemical tests, and refined imaging techniques have been improved and become well established. The most extensive section reviews data derived from experimental animal models. Batteries of functional tests have been developed, validated and used extensively in neurotoxicological studies. Many different types of behavioural tests have been used to assess chemical-induced changes in sensory, motor and cognitive function, whereas neurophysiological measures have been standardized to assess chemical-induced sensory and motor function. The final chapter examines the steps involved in neurotoxicity risk assessment: hazard identification, dose-response assessment, exposure assessment and risk characterization. The application of risk assessment principles for neurotoxicants is similar to that of other non-cancer end-points, except that issues of reversibility, compensation and recovery of function in the nervous system require special consideration. This document provides guidance on neurotoxicity risk assessment at a broad international level.

Intended as a tool for use by public health officials, research and regulatory scientists and risk managers, this publication seeks to provide a scientific framework for the use and interpretation of reproductive toxicity data from human and animal studies. It also discusses emerging methodology and testing strategy in reproductive toxicity. The text focuses on approaches to assessing reproductive toxicity in males and females, including sexual dysfunction and infertility, and many aspects of developmental toxicity (following both prenatal and postnatal exposure), from conception to sexual maturation. It is an overview of the major scientific principles underlying hazard identification, testing methods and risk assessment strategies in human reproductive toxicity. It also discusses the evaluation of reproductive toxicity data in the context of the extensive risk assessment methodology that has emerged over the past 10-15 years.

This book evaluates the risks to human health posed by disinfectants and disinfectant by-products found in treated drinking water. Noting that chlorine and other widely used disinfectants were approved for use almost 100 years ago when toxicological data were limited, the report responds to the need for reassurance that consumption of treated drinking water will not have adverse effects on health. Particular concern centers on the potential of chlorine to react with natural organic matter and form a large number of by-products, some of which have been intensively studied as potential human carcinogens. With these concerns in mind, the report evaluates over 800 recent studies in an effort to clarify understanding of the chemistry and toxicology of disinfectants and disinfectant by-products and provide a balanced assessment of the associated risks to human health. The report is issued at a time when public health authorities and utilities-providers in several countries are considering alternative methods of disinfection aimed at reducing the formation of specific by-products. In this context, the report stresses the overriding importance of microbiological safety and warns that adequate disinfection must not be compromised by efforts to control chemical by-products. The first chapter on the chemistry of disinfectants and disinfectant by-products examines the many complex factors, including methods of water treatment that govern the formation of by-products and influence their type and amount. Of special interest to utilities-providers, the chapter explains the physical and chemical properties that influence the behavior of specific by-products in drinking water and determine their toxic actions. By-products of greatest concern are identified as trihalomethanes including chloroform and bromodichloromethane, haloacetic acids including dichloroacetic acid, and trichloroacetic acid, bromate, and chlorite. The chapter concludes that the adoption of alternative disinfecting chemicals often amounts to nothing more than a trade-off between one group of by-products and another. Removal of natural organic matter is singled out as the most effective control strategy. Chapter two reviews what is known about the toxic effects of the principal disinfectants: chlorine and hypochlorite, chloramines, and chlorine dioxide. On the basis of this evaluation, the report concludes that disinfectants probably do not increase the risk of cancer or have other significant adverse effects on health. Chapter three evaluates the toxic effects of fourteen by-products, concentrating on the large number of studies of carcinogenicity and mutagenicity. Epidemiological studies are reviewed in chapter four, which considers extensive investigations of possible associations with cancer, cardiovascular disease, and adverse effects on reproduction and development. While most studies have concentrated on an increased risk of bladder cancer, risks of colon, rectal, and other cancers have also been investigated. Noting the uncertainties surrounding many of these studies, the report cautions against a simple interpretation of observed associations and concludes that more comprehensive water quality data must be collected to improve exposure assessments. Evidence was considered insufficient to determine whether observed associations are causal and which specific by-products or other contaminants play a role. In the final chapters focused on risk, characterization, and assessment, the report concludes that the risks to health from disinfectant by-products at the levels at which they occur in drinking water are extremely small in comparison with the risks associated with inadequate disinfection. In supporting efforts to minimize the formation of by-products, the report further concludes that protection of source waters aimed at reducing the presence of natural organic matter is often the most efficient approach to control.

This book offers an up-to-date guide to the concepts, procedures, statistical methods and models used to assess human exposure to environmental chemicals. Noting that exposure assessment is a comparatively new discipline of the environmental sciences, the book aims to encourage its use as a powerful tool for measuring actual levels of exposure and determining whether interventions are needed to protect public health. With this goal in mind, the book gives researchers expert advice on the design and conduct of studies, the interpretation of findings, and the best methods for ensuring the reliability and reproducibility of results. Throughout, emphasis is placed on the ways in which well-designed exposure assessments can enhance the practical value of findings from traditional epidemiological and toxicological investigations. The book has twelve chapters. The first six cover conceptual and methodological issues. Chapter one introduces basic concepts used in exposure assessment, and describes direct and indirect methods of measuring or estimating actual exposure and determining whether intervention is required. The uses of human exposure data are covered in chapter two, which explains how studies of human exposure can reduce the uncertainty of estimates used in epidemiology, risk assessment and risk management. Chapter three considers several generic study designs and approaches, and compares their advantages and limitations. Chapter four, on statistical methods, discusses selective applications of descriptive and inferential statistics, using data on lead exposure as an example. Subsequent chapters review methods for the collection and application of time-use data and introduce the principles, methods and data requirements of exposure modeling. Against this background, chapters in the second half of the book offer practical advice on the design and conduct of studies aimed at assessing exposure to chemicals in different environmental media. Separate chapters describe sampling methods used to analyze chemical concentrations in air, water, and food, and in soil and settled dust. Environmental allergens that can contribute to disease or alter susceptibility are considered in chapter nine, which concentrates on methods for measuring particles from house dust mites and their feces, allergens from pets and cockroaches, and allergens or toxins from fungi, bacteria and pollen. Subsequent chapters describe the use of biological markers in exposure assessment, and discuss issues surrounding the quality assurance of exposure studies and results. The final chapter presents brief summaries and examples of exposure studies in order to illustrate different study designs for different objectives, target pollutants, and populations. Studies that show how exposure assessment supports epidemiology and risk management, particularly in developing countries, are also included.

This book evaluates the risks to human health and the environment posed by the use of Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) as a microbial agent for pest control. Products containing various Bt subspecies are increasingly used worldwide to control the larvae of several insect pests that threaten major agricultural crops and forests. Bt products are also being used to control the insect vectors of malaria onchocerciasis and other diseases of major public health importance. The bacterium is also a key source of genes for transgenic expression to provide pest resistance in plants and microorganisms. The report opens with an overview of the biological properties of Bt and commercial Bt products. Particular attention is given to the mechanisms by which sporulation produces inclusion bodies containing insecticidal crystalline proteins which are selectively toxic for insect species in the orders Coleoptera Diptera and Lepidoptera. Tables show the current classification of 67 Bt subspecies and the large number of genes coding for the insecticidal crystalline proteins. A review of Bt metabolites found in commercial products concludes that they pose no hazards to humans or the environment. Chapter two reviews data elucidating the mechanisms by which Bt exerts its toxic action on susceptible insect larvae. Data on insect populations that are resistant to Bt are also briefly considered. Chapter three which focuses on the survival and activity of Bt in the environment compares habitats where Bt subspecies occur naturally with treated habitats. Particular attention is given to the ability of Bt to form endospores that are resistant to inactivation by heat and desiccation and that persist in the environment under adverse conditions. A chapter on commercial production describes methods of production and general patterns of use in agriculture and forestry and in large-scale programmes to control the vectors of malaria and onchocerciasis. The most extensive chapter evaluates the large number of studies conducted to assess the toxicity of various preparations containing insecticidal crystalline proteins spores and vegetative cells. Laboratory studies in a range of species have failed to demonstrate toxic or pathogenic effects. Field studies have likewise failed to demonstrate adverse effects on birds earthworms fish other aquatic vertebrates and non-target aquatic invertebrates. An evaluation of effects on humans draws on studies in volunteers case reports from occupationally-exposed workers and extensive data from countries where Bt products are added to drinking-water for mosquito control or used to treat rivers for blackfly control. On the basis of this review the report concludes that Bt products are unlikely to pose any hazard to humans or other vertebrates or to the great majority of non-target invertebrates provided the commercial product is free from non-Bt microorganisms and biologically active products other than the insecticidal crystalline proteins. The report further concludes that Bt products can be safely used for the control of insect pests of agricultural and horticultural crops and forests. These products are likewise judged safe for use in aquatic environments including drinking-water reservoirs for the control of mosquito black fly and nuisance insect larvae. The report stresses however that vegetative Bt has the potential to produce Bacillus cereus-like toxins whose significance as a possible cause of human gastrointestinal disease remains unknown. ...one of the most thorough published reviews of Bacillus thuringiensis ... provides an array of pertinent background material... -- Integrated Pest Management Network

Summarizes current understanding of the complex interactions between chemicals, the immune system, and target organs that lead to manifestations of allergic hypersensitivity and autoimmunity. Noting that the incidence of allergic disorders has increased significantly in many countries, the book responds to the urgent need to improve methods for detecting potential allergens and predicting their effects in both individuals and populations. The need for better preventive strategies and therapeutic options is also considered, particularly in view of the high costs of allergic disorders in terms of health care and time lost from work. Addressed to researchers, the book concentrates on what is known about the mechanisms of sensitization and autoimmunity elicited by numerous industrial chemicals, adjuvant environmental factors, such as air pollution, tobacco smoke, and ultraviolet radiation, and food allergens with a proven involvement of the immune system. Although a large number of allergies are covered, particular attention is given to asthma and contact dermatitis as major occupational diseases undergoing intensive investigation. Throughout, a special effort is made to identify lines of investigation that will lead to a better understanding of fundamental mechanisms and thus improve the prospects for treatment and prevention. Over 1000 references to the literature are included. The book opens with a detailed explanation of the structure and functional processes of the immune system, followed by a discussion of the mechanisms by which chemicals can disrupt these functions. Also discussed are fundamental concepts of immunosuppression, immunodeficiency, and immunological tolerance that helpexplain the mechanistic basis of sensitization, allergic responses, and autoimmunity. Chapter two provides an overview of mechanisms involved in four major types of hypersensitivity and in autoimmunity. Mechanisms are illustrated with examples of diseases - from occupational asthma, through myasthenia gravis, to chronic beryllium disease - where exposure to environmental chemicals might play a role. The numerous hypotheses put forward to explain the mechanisms of autoimmune reactions are also critically assessed. Factors influencing allergenicity are covered in chapter three, which concentrates on the many complex endogenous and exogenous factors that govern the induction of allergic responses. Against this background, chapter four discusses clinical aspects of the most important allergic diseases. These include allergic contact dermatitis, atopic eczema, allergic rhinitis and conjunctivitis, allergic asthma caused by contact with chemicals, food allergy, and autoimmune diseases associated with drugs, chemicals, and environmental factors. Each disease is profiled in terms of its epidemiology, clinical manifestations, etiology, pathogenesis, diagnosis, and strategies for treatment and prevention. The remaining chapters review the epidemiology of asthma and allergic disease, including trends over time in different geographical regions, describe procedures for hazard identification through the demonstration of allergenicity, and explain how the principles of risk assessment can be applied to allergy. The book concludes with a glossary of terms, followed by 15 precise recommendations for the protection of human health and a list of priorities for further research.

This book evaluates the risks to human health and the environment posed by exposure to chrysotile asbestos. Also referred to as white asbestos, chrysotile is a naturally occurring fibrous hydrated magnesium silicate mineral having many commercial applications. Chrysotile is released to the environment from industrial sources. In addition, natural weathering of serpentine rock results in emissions to air and water. Although the health risks associated with mixed exposures to the main commercial forms of asbestos (crocidolite, amosite, and chrysotile) are well known, the evaluation was undertaken in response to the continuing widespread production and use of chrysotile following the International Labour Organisation's recommendation to discontinue the use of crocidolite asbestos, and taking into consideration that amosite is virtually no longer exploited. The asbestos cement industry is singled out as by far the largest current global user of chrysotile fibres. Main applications include the production of corrugated sheets, flat sheets and building boards, slates, moulded goods, including low-pressure pipes, and high-pressure water pipes.Chrysotile is also used, in much smaller quantities, in the manufacturing of friction products, gaskets, and asbestos paper.

This book evaluates the risks to human health and the environment posed by exposure to copper, a malleable metal found naturally in a wide variety of mineral salts and organic compounds, and in the metallic form. Copper is an essential element for all biota. It is widely used in cooking utensils and water distribution systems, in fertilizers, bactericides, fungicides, algicides, and antifouling paints, and in animal feed additives and growth promoters. Industrial applications include use as an activator in froth flotation and sulfide ores, in the production of wood preservatives, in electroplating, and in the manufacturing of azo-dyes.

Evaluates the risks to human health and the environment posed by exposure to monochlorobenzene, dichlorobenzenes, trichlorobenzenes, tetrachlorobenzenes, and pentachlorobenzene. These chemicals are produced in huge quantities for use as intermediates in the synthesis of pesticides and in the production of a wide range of consumer and commercial products. A review of data on sources of environmental exposure notes that release to the environment occurs primarily during manufacture and that incineration of chlorobenzenes may lead to the emission of polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and dibenzofurans. Sections concerned with sources and levels of human exposure conclude that the general population is exposed to the lower chlorinated congeners mainly through inhalation, whereas a greater proportion of the total daily intake of the higher chlorinated compounds is ingested in food; breast-fed babies may receive a higher dose than adults. Particular concern centres on risks of human exposure arising from the ingestion of contaminated fish and from contaminated indoor air linked to use of these compounds as moth repellents and air fresheners.