The history of the U.S. criminal justice system is marked by racial inequality and sustained by present day policy. Large racial and ethnic disparities exist across the several stages of criminal legal processing, including in arrests, pre-trial detention, and sentencing and incarceration, among others, with Black, Latino, and Native Americans experiencing worse outcomes. The historical legacy of racial exclusion and structural inequalities form the social context for racial inequalities in crime and criminal justice. Racial inequality can drive disparities in crime, victimization, and system involvement. Reducing Racial Inequality in Crime and Justice: Science, Practice, and Policy synthesizes the evidence on community-based solutions, noncriminal policy interventions, and criminal justice reforms, charting a path toward the reduction of racial inequalities by minimizing harm in ways that also improve community safety. Reversing the effects of structural racism and severing the close connections between racial inequality, criminal harms such as violence, and criminal justice involvement will involve fostering local innovation and evaluation, and coordinating local initiatives with state and federal leadership. This report also highlights the challenge of creating an accurate, national picture of racial inequality in crime and justice: there is a lack of consistent, reliable data, as well as data transparency and accountability. While the available data points toward trends that Black, Latino, and Native American individuals are overrepresented in the criminal justice system and given more severe punishments compared to White individuals, opportunities for improving research should be explored to better inform decision-making. Table of Contents Front Matter Summary 1 Introduction 2 Racial Disparities in Victimization, Offending, and Involvement with the Criminal Justice System 3 Social Drivers of Racial Inequalities in Crime and Justice 4 Criminal Justice Drivers of Racial Inequalities 5 Introduction to Part II 6 Community-Driven Safety and Reducing Harm 7 Non-Criminal Policy Approaches to Reduce Racial Inequalities in Crime and Justice 8 Criminal Justice System Reforms to Reduce Racial Inequality 9 The Federal Role 10 Data and Research Opportunities References Appendix: Biosketches of Committee Members and Staff

In the United States, some populations suffer from far greater disparities in health than others. Those disparities are caused not only by fundamental differences in health status across segments of the population, but also because of inequities in factors that impact health status, so-called determinants of health. Only part of an individual's health status depends on his or her behavior and choice; community-wide problems like poverty, unemployment, poor education, inadequate housing, poor public transportation, interpersonal violence, and decaying neighborhoods also contribute to health inequities, as well as the historic and ongoing interplay of structures, policies, and norms that shape lives. When these factors are not optimal in a community, it does not mean they are intractable: such inequities can be mitigated by social policies that can shape health in powerful ways. Communities in Action: Pathways to Health Equity seeks to delineate the causes of and the solutions to health inequities in the United States. This report focuses on what communities can do to promote health equity, what actions are needed by the many and varied stakeholders that are part of communities or support them, as well as the root causes and structural barriers that need to be overcome. Table of Contents Front Matter Summary 1 The Need to Promote Health Equity 2 The State of Health Disparities in the United States 3 The Root Causes of Health Inequity 4 The Role of Communities in Promoting Health Equity 5 Examples of Communities Tackling Health Inequity 6 Policies to Support Community Solutions 7 Partners in Promoting Health Equity in Communities 8 Community Tools to Promote Health Equity 9 Conclusion Appendix A: Native American Health: Historical and Legal Context Appendix B: Community-Level Indicators and Interactive Tools for Health Equity Appendix C: Public Meeting Agendas Appendix D: Committee Biographical Sketches

On June 11 and June 12, 2019, the National Academies convened a workshop to explore the growing understanding of how the interplay between humans and microbes affects host physiology and causes noncommunicable diseases. Discussions included an overview of colliding epidemics, emerging research on associations between infectious and noncommunicable diseases, risks posed by chronic diseases to the development and severity of infectious diseases, and the influence of the microbiome. Workshop participants also examined the challenges and opportunities of convergence, the integration of health care delivery models and interventions, potential approaches for research, policy, and practice in the immediate-term, and potential directions for the long-term. This publication summarizes the presentations and discussions from the workshop. Table of Contents Front Matter 1 Introduction 2 An Overview of Colliding Epidemics and Syndemics 3 Emerging Research on Associations Between Infectious and Noncommunicable Diseases 4 Risks Posed by Chronic Diseases to the Development and Severity of Infectious Diseases 5 Microbial Dimension to Human Development and Well-Being 6 Confronting "The Blind People and the Elephant" Metaphor to Bridge the Silos 7 Integrating Health Care Delivery Models and Interventions 8 Potential Approaches for Research, Policy, and Practice in the Immediate Term 9 Visionary Statements on Potential Priorities to Address the Convergence References Appendix A: Statement of Task Appendix B: Workshop Agenda Appendix C: Speaker Biographies