The year 1973 marked the first time that Atlanta, one of the cultural centers of the South, has hosted the Cryogenic Engineering Conference since its beginning in 1954. The Cryogenic Engineering Conference gratefully acknowledges the hospital ity of the Georgia Institute of Technology and the assistance of W. T. Ziegler and his staff in making the visit to Atlanta a pleasant and memorable one. Several significant changes were initiated at the 1973 Cryogenic Engineering Conference. These included a Conference theme on the subject of "Energy and the Environment," a new Conference format, and the beginning of a new Conference frequency of biennial meetings. While retaining the traditional topics of previous meetings, the 1973 Cryogenic Engineering Conference focused on the role of cryo genic engineering in the generation, distribution, and conversion of energy, and the related environmental effects. In these areas, much of the current interest stems from the environmental effects of LNG and liquid hydrogen as compared with other competing energy forms. These rapidly expanding areas may provide the impetus to cryogenic engineering in the 1970's that the space program provided in the 1960's. The Conference format was altered by the use of numerous invited papers highlighting the theme. These presentations were concentrated in plenary sessions initiating each day's activities, and in seminars designed to summarize the various aspects of the theme."

The National Bureau of Standards Boulder Laboratories at Boulder, Colorado once again served as the host for the 1972 Cryogenic Engineering Conference. For the Cryogenic Engineering Conference it was like coming horne, for it was at the NBS Boulder Laboratories that the Cryogenic Engineering Conference was first conceived and held m 1954m connection with the dedication ofthe NBS Boulder Laboratories by President Dwight D. Eisenhower. The Cryogenic Engineering Conference IS grateful for the continuing support that the National Bureau of Standards has gIVen over the years, and which was expanded on July 1, 1971 when the NBS Boulder Laboratories assumed the secretariat function of the Conference from the National Academy of Sciences. Because of common interests in heat transfer, the 1972 Cryogemc Engineering Conference worked with the 13th National Heat Transfer Conference to develop a joint program m heat transfer. A majority ofthe papers presented in this cooperative effort are incIuded m V olume 18 of the Advances zn Cryogenic Engineerzng through the kmd permission ofthe 13th NatIOnal Heat Transfer Conference and are acknowl edged accordingly."

The 1960 Cryogenic Engineering Conference Committee is pleased to present the papers of the 1960 Cryogenic Engineering Conference. Discussion of the papers, wherever available, has also been included to make the papers more valuable and interesting to the reader. This annual meeting once again has been held in Boulder, Colorado. Many delegates will recall that similar meetings were held in Boulder in 1954, 1956 and 1957. However, this year, because of the continued growth of this conference, the National Bureau of Standards Boulder Laboratories was joined by the College of Engineering of the University of Colorado in hosting this sixth national con ference. The Cryogenic Engineering Conference Committee is happy to acknowledge the help of an Editorial Committee which contributed valuable assistance in the difficult and thankless task of screening the preliminary papers and also re viewing the final drafts. This committee headedby R. B. jacobs, who also served as chairman for the Conference Committee, consisted of R. W. Arnett, D. B. Chelton, R. J. Corruccini, T. M. Flynn, R. H. Kropschot, R. M. McClintock, A. F. Schmidt, L. E. Scott and W. A. Wilson."

1969 marked the return of the Cryogenic Engineering Conference, now affiliated with the National Academy ofSciences through the Division ofEngineering, National Research Council, to the University of California at Los Angeles. As in 1962, the Cryogenic Engineering Conference gratefully acknowledges the assistance of UCLA, its Engineering and Physical Seien ces Extension Division, and in particular J. Dillon, S. Houston, H. L. Tallman, and their stafffor serving as hosts to the 1969 Cryogenic Engineering Conference. The National Academy of Sciences is a private honorary organization of more than 700 scientists and engineers elected on the basis of outstanding contributions to knowledge. Established by a Congressional Act of Incorporation, the Academy works to further science and its use for the general welfare by bringing together the most qualified individuals to deal with scientific and technological problems of broad significance. The National Research Council was organized as an agency of the National Academy of Sciences in 1916, to enable the broad community of U.S. scientists and engineers to associate their efforts with the Iimited membership of the Academy in service to science and the nation. The Division of Engineering is one of the eight major Divisions into which the National Research Council is organized for the conduct of its work. Its membership includes representatives of the nation's leading technical societies as weH as a number of members-at-Iarge. The Cryogenic Engineering Conference is an organization of the Division of Engineering.

The 1959 Cryogenic Engineering Conference Committee is pleased to pre sent the papers of the 1959 Cryogenic Engineering Conference. We are fortunate to have had the University of California at Berkeley, Ca ., as our host for the fifth national meeting of this kind. The move to the West Coast for this past Cryogenic Engineering Conference was prompted in part by the large concentration of missile activities which are to be found there. Recognition of cryogenic operations and techniques in the mis sile field is given in many of the included papers. The University of California was certainly wen suited for such a meeting as this because it was here that much early work was done in cryogenics. This pioneering in cryogenics is still evident today in the operation of the 72-in. bub ble chamber at the Lawrence Radiation Laboratory. The Cryogenic Engineering Conference salutes the missile industry and the cryogenic pioneers of yesterday and today at the University of California. Special thanks must go to Dr. D. N. Lyon from the Low-Temperature Laboratory of the University of California, who as chairman of the 1959 Cryogenic Engineering Conference Committee has worked tirelessly to increase the stature of this conference. vii ACKNOWLEDGMENT The Cryogenic Engineering Conference Committee is deeply grateful for the continued support and interest of the following organizations who made the 1959 Cryogenic Engineering Conference possible. Aerojet-General Corporation A. D. Little, Inc."

The Second International Cryogenic Materials Conference (ICMC) was held in Boulder, Colorado, in conjunction with the 1977 Cryogenic Engineering Con ference (CEC). Special thanks must be given to the University of Colorado for their skillful hosting of these two conferences. Collaboration between the two con ferences has been mutually beneficial, providing the materials special ist with insight into new applications and design concepts and the cryogenic engineer with exposure to modern materials accomplishments and potentials. The Proceedings of the 1977 Cryogenic Engineering Conference are published in Volume 23 of Advances in Cryogenic Engineering. Both conferences will be held again simul taneously in Madison, Wisconsin, in August 1979. The success and growth of the two International Cryogenic Materials Con ferences have led to the formation of an ICMC Board of Directors. The board members will serve a four-year term and include: Chairman, R. P. Reed (U.S.), R. W. Boom (U.S.), A. F. Clark (U.S.), G. Hartwig (W. Germany), J. W. Morris (U.S.), M. Suenaga (U.S.), K. Tachikawa (Japan), J. Tanaka (Japan), and K. A. Yushchenko (USSR)."

The 1965 Cryogenic Engineering Conference, in presenting the papers of its eleventh annual meeting takes this opportunity to gratefuIly acknowledge the assistance of Rice University and, in particular, R. Kobayashi and his staff for serving as hosts for this conference. This meeting, because of its proximity to the NASA Manned Spacecraft Center, has recognized the impact of the space age on the cryogenic field and has, there fore, attempted to emphasize this aspect of cryogenics to a greater degree than in past conferences. The highlight of this conference has been the presentation of the highest Cryogenic Engineering Conference award-The Samuel C. CoIlins Award-to its first recipient, Dr. Samuel C. Collins. This award, set up in his name, has recognized the outstanding contributions that Dr. S. C. CoIlins, retired Professor of Mechanical Engineering at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, has made in the field of helium liquefaction. His significant advances in various phases of cryogenics have been recognized inter nationaIly by numerous organizations. High on this list has been the tribute which was bestowed on hirn by the Kamerlingh-Onnes Laboratory in Leiden in awarding hirn the first Kamerlingh-Onnes gold medal to an American in 1958. The Cryogenic Engineering Conference, in addition to recognizing his pioneering work in helium liquefaction by the presentation of the Samuel C. Collins Award, also dedicates this volume of the Advances in Cryogenic Engineering to hirn."

Support from the National Science Foundation has made it possible for the tenth annual Cryogenic Engineering Conference, hosted by the University of Pennsylvania and capably directed by K. R. Atkins and his staff, to emphasize the major international advances in cryogenic engineering. This specific emphasis resulted in a final program of over one hundred papers and has made it necessary to publish the proceedings of the conference in two volumes. The first volume will be similar in nature to previous volumes in this series, while the second volume will feature the international aspect of the conference program. The latter volume, because of this distinction, will be entitled International Advances in Cryogenic Engineering. As in the past, the Cryogenic Engineering Conference Committee gratefully acknow ledges the assistance of all the dedicated workers in the cryogenic field who have contributed their time in reviewing the preliminary papers for the program and the final manuscripts for this volume. Since the list of participants in this thankless task numbers well over one hundred, any attempt to acknowledge their individual contributions in the limited space available would be practically impossible."

The First International Cryogenic Materials Conference (ICMC) provided a new forum for the presentation of low-temperature materials research. The confer ence, held in conjunction with the 1975 Cryogenic Engineering Conference, provided materials research personnel with excellent exposure to current develop ments in the cryogenics field and beneficial interactions with designers of cryogenic systems. Because of the large response to a late call for papers, the enthusiasm and encouragement at the meeting, and the wide spectrum and high quality of papers, the Second International Cryogenic Materials Conference is being planned along with the 1977 Cryogenic Engineering Conference for Boulder, Colorado, in the summer of 1977. The success of the First International Cryogenic Materials Conference was certainly in large measure due to the excellent hospitality of our Canadian hosts, the Royal Military College of Canada and Queen's University in Kingston, Ontario. In particular, the efforts of A. C. Leonard and his staff ensured an excellent conference and a pleasant and memorable visit to Canada. The Cryogenic Engineering Conference Board was both generous and skillful in helping to initiate this new conference and their guidance and acceptance is gratefully acknowledged. The Cryogenic Engineering Conference program chairman, M. J. Hiza, greatly facilitated the interaction for the two conferences and provided valuable assistance in generat ing a workable program. The proceedings of the 1975 Cryogenic Engineering Conference are published as Volume 21 of the Advances in Cryogenic Engineering and include many papers indicating innovative use of new cryogenic materials properties data."

This book is meant for laboratory workers who for one reason or another have a need to cool something down to temperatures below that of liquid nitrogen - notably to 4. 2 DegreesK and below. It does not deal with experimental techniques at low temperatures, but I have tried to bring the reader face to face with the brutishrealities of the necessary hardware. As weIl as giving information about sources of supply of equipment, I have gone into so me detail about how some of it can be made in laboratory workshops for the sake of those who are short of money but blessed with competent technical support. So far as highly specialized items such as liquefiers, refrigerators, refrigerant containers, cryostat dewars, etc. , are concerned, I have included aIl sources of supply which I have got to he ar of; in the case of more generaIly available equipment only representative sources of known reliability have been quoted. Any omissions or errors must be put down either to my own ignorance, stupidity, or lack of will toget about the world, or perhaps to the difficulty I have had in extracting information from manufacturers. However, most have gone to great trouble to help, and I hope I have done them justice. Brought up to work indifferently in inches and centimetres and perched between the opposing puIls of the USA and Europe, I have used a mixture of units which may shock the purist.

In late 1877, Louis Cailletete in France and Raoul Pictet in Switzerland independently succeeded in liquefying oxygen, thereby proving a hypothesis set forth by Antoine Lavoisier nearly 100 years earlier. The theme of the 1977 Cryogenic Engineering Conference "Cryogenics: A Century of Progress-A Chal lenge for the Future" properly commemorated this accomplishment by reviewing some of the noteworthy advances since that time and outlining many advances still to come. Both Volumes 23 and 24 of this series provide a good account of the many contributions that were presented at this conference. The 1977 Cryogenic Engineering Conference was appropriately again held in Boulder, Colorado where the first Cryogenic Engineering Conference was initiated 23 years ago by the late Russell B. Scott, then Chief of the Cryogenic Engineering Laboratory of the National Bureau of Standards. The Cryogenic Engineering Conference Board is extremely grateful to members of the National Bureau of Standards and the University of Colorado for serving as hosts for this meeting of cryogenic specialists from all over the world. The Cryogenic Engineering Conference is again pleased to have had the International Cryogenic Materials Conference co-host this biennial meeting for the second time in succession. This joint effort again has permitted an in-depth coverage of research on technical materials in areas currently receiving primary attention by the cryogenic engineering community. The Proceedings of the Inter national Cryogenic Materials Conference will be published as Volume 24 of the Advances in Cryogenic Engineering."

While it is barely 50 years since the first reliable reports of the recovery of living cells frozen to cryogenic temperatures, there has been tremendous growth in the use of cryobiology in medicine, agriculture, horticulture, forestry, and the conservation of endangered or economically important species. As the first major text on cryobiology in the genomic era, Life in the Frozen State describes the current understanding of how living cells and complex organisms survive very low temperatures. Leading world experts combine fundamental theory and practice across a spectrum of species and applications to evaluate how cryobiology can benefit humanity. Chapters encompass disciplines ranging from mathematical modeling and biophysics, to the molecular biology of stress gene expression and the clinical banking of cells and tissues. This book provides a unique opportunity to explore the subject in a multidisciplinary context, which has historically been the key to realizing some of the most exciting advances in low temperature research. Features Integrates fundamental theory and practice across a broad range of species and applications Discusses cryobiology within a multidisciplinary context Emphasizes how the current knowledge of cryobiology can be applied to benefit humanity through health care and conservation

Like for its three predecessors, the purpose of this fourth edition is chiefly to help physicists, physical chemists, materials scientists, metallurgists, engineers, and biologists to carry out investigations at low temperatures. This new edition takes into account the major changes in cryogenic technology over the past twenty years. These changes include areas of temperature measurement and control, superconducting magnets, cryocoolers, ultra-low temperatures, technical data on materials, commercially available cryostats for optical, x-ray, thermal and electrical measurements. Less emphasis is now placed on methods of constructing cryostats in the laboratory and more emphasis on commercially available cryostats, temperature controllers, and closed circuit cryocoolers. The book contains comprehensive, up-to-date tables of physical property data on metals, polymers, and ceramics. It will be of value to graduate students as well as to engineers and biologists facing cryogenic problems.

Cryogenic systems that involve two-phase (vapour-liquid) flows are widely used in industries such as aerospace, metallurgy, power engineering, and food production, as well as in high energy physics research. The purpose of this book is to describe characteristic features of cryogenic systems involving two-phase flow, create mathematical models of these systems, and then show how the models may be used to develop optimal designs for practical cryogenic systems. Since transient phenomena can produce severe and unexpected effects in cryogenic systems, the authors pay particular attention to this important topic. Examples in the book are drawn from cryogenic fluid transport, gasification, and the stabilisation of superconducting magnets. Much of this work is related to the development of large Russian systems in the areas of space technology, energy research, and particle physics.

Cryogenic systems that involve two-phase (vapour-liquid) flows are widely used in industries such as aerospace, metallurgy, power engineering, and food production, as well as in high energy physics research. The purpose of this book is to describe characteristic features of cryogenic systems involving two-phase flow, create mathematical models of these systems, and then show how the models may be used to develop optimal designs for practical cryogenic systems. Since transient phenomena can produce severe and unexpected effects in cryogenic systems, the authors pay particular attention to this important topic. Examples in the book are drawn from cryogenic fluid transport, gasification, and the stabilisation of superconducting magnets. Much of this work is related to the development of large Russian systems in the areas of space technology, energy research, and particle physics.

An introduction to modern physics and to Richard Feynman at his witty and enthusiastic best, discussing gravitation, irreversibility, symmetry, and the nature of scientific discovery.Richard Feynman was one of the most famous and important physicists of the second half of the twentieth century. Awarded the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1965, celebrated for his spirited and engaging lectures, and briefly a star on the evening news for his presence on the commission investigating the explosion of the space shuttle Challenger, Feynman is best known for his contributions to the field of quantum electrodynamics. The Character of Physical Law, drawn from Feynman's famous 1964 series of Messenger Lectures at Cornell, offers an introduction to modern physics--and to Feynman at his witty and enthusiastic best. In this classic book (originally published in 1967), Feynman offers an overview of selected physical laws and gathers their common features, arguing that the importance of a physical law is not "how clever we are to have found it out" but "how clever nature is to pay attention to it." He discusses such topics as the interaction of mathematics and physics, the principle of conservation, the puzzle of symmetry, and the process of scientific discovery. A foreword by 2004 Physics Nobel laureate Frank Wilczek updates some of Feynman's observations--noting, however, "the need for these particular updates enhances rather than detracts from the book." In The Character of Physical Law, Feynman chose to grapple with issues at the forefront of physics that seemed unresolved, important, and approachable.

Dieses Buch bietet einen UEberblick uber die Kryobiologie, einen Teilbereich der biomedizinischen Forschung, der sich seit vielen Jahren mit der Lebenserhaltung durch Kalte beschaftigt. Zum Beispiel werden Zellkulturen und winzige Gewebeproben bei kryogenen Temperaturen (unter etwa -90 DegreesC) aufbewahrt. Eine Wiederbelebung von Organen ist bisher fast ausschliesslich nach einer Kuhlung auf Temperaturen von 0 bis -80 DegreesC gelungen und heute noch Gegenstand der Forschung. Der aktuelle Forschungsstand wird hier zusammengefasst und fur verschiedene Tierarten und konkrete Anwendungsbereiche dargelegt. Vor allem wird auf grosse biologische Einheiten, wie z. B. menschliche Organe und, als Fernziel, den ganzen menschlichen Organismus, eingegangen. Es werden die Notwendigkeit sowie die Moeglichkeiten fur die Vermeidung von Eiskristallen und Stressfrakturen wahrend der Kuhlung auf kryogene Temperaturen erklart, um eine sichere Lagerung zu ermoeglichen.Neuere Methoden werden vorgestellt, die versuchen mit geringstmoeglichen Konzentrationen von Frostschutzmitteln auszukommen, da diese Nebenwirkungen verursachen aber benoetigt werden, um die Kristallisierung, wie auch die Stressfrakturen geringzuhalten.Dieses Buch richtet sich an Personen, die sich uber das Feld der Kryobiologie informieren moechten und dessen Fortschritte, Einsatzmoeglichkeiten, aber auch die momentanen Limitierungen kennen lernen moechten.

Cryogenics is the study of the production of very low temperature (below -150 DegreesC, -238 DegreesF or 123 K) and the behaviour of materials at those temperatures. This book presents current research from across the globe in the study of cryogenics, including the effect of cryogenic treatment on microstructure and mechanical properties of light weight alloys; the application of Fiber Bragg grating sensors at cryogenic temperatures; cryogenic grinding; liquid oxygen magnetohydrodynamics; and genetic engineering techniques used to improve tolerance to cryopreservation.

In a clear, nontechnical account, Jack Goldstein tells the story of this entrepreneurial American scientist who played an essential part in experiments important to the development of quantum mechanics, who later became an advisor to the government during much of the Cold War period, and whose leadership in educational reform resulted in the restructuring of the entire American high school science curriculum. Jerrold Zacharias (1905-1986) was a physicist well placed by historical circumstance to take a central part in the development of American science, science policy, and science education. In a clear, nontechnical account, Jack Goldstein tells the story of this entrepreneurial American scientist who played an essential part in experiments important to the development of quantum mechanics, who later became an advisor to the government during much of the Cold War period, and whose leadership in educational reform resulted in the restructuring of the entire American high school science curriculum. Zacharias lived at a time when an individual with imagination and courage could make a difference, whether at the forefront of science or in matters of public policy. He believed that every citizen, even those with modest scientific sophistication and knowledge, could learn to think like a scientist. Now, at a time when the issues of science education and science literacy are again of compelling national interest, his ideas merit close attention.Goldstein describes Zacharias's coming of scientific age in the early 1930s, as a member of 1. 1. Rabi's group at Columbia, and examines the leading role he played during World War II at MIT's Radiation Laboratory and at the Manhattan Project. From about 1955 on, Goldstein observes, Zacharias made significant contributions to science education in physics, chemistry, biology, and mathematics at the primary, secondary, and college levels. As a result of his initiatives, science and mathematics curriculum development flourished in a number of third-world countries.