Police response to incidents of intimate partner violence can be critical. This volume investigates the elements in the institutional, legal and organizational context that are relevant for police response to incidents in the realm of the private sphere and whether there exists a relation with the reporting of such incidents by victims. Addressing this complex question requires insights from research, policy and practice and, as such, any conclusions will have implications for each of these fields. This volume addresses issues that are key elements in the relationship between the (legal) response to family violence and the reporting by victims. These issues concern societal and legal definitions of family violence employed in research, policy making and legal practice; how the legislation of various countries covers violence in the private sphere; the way the police deal with reported incidents of intimate partner violence; and the role that other interventions play in the response to and combat of family violence and intimate partner violence.

While a great deal has been written about domestic violence, almost all of it focuses on the violence of men against their current or former wives or girlfriends. Yet studies have shown that partner abuse is common and as severe among same-sex couples as among heterosexual couples. After years of willful or negligent silence, the gay/lesbian/bisexual communities, the battered women?s communities, academicians, and even portions of the general public are beginning to realize that same-sex domestic violence is a serious social and public health issue.

Unfortunately, the social worker, lawyer, mental health professional, police officer, teacher, or lay person who seeks to assist victims of same-sex domestic violence quickly discovers the dearth of written resource material available. There are very few books and only a smattering of articles that focus on same-sex domestic violence. Most of these works deal either with lesbian or gay male abuse, but not both at once. Moreover, most of these works are devoted to explaining the fact of same-sex domestic violence, rather than discussing strategies for addressing it on both the individual and societal level.

This book examines a broad range of issues that confront victims of same-sex domestic violence, whether women or men, and those who offer them services. The goal is to provide a comprehensive resource book consisting of chapters by prominent professionals and activists on topics of practical concern to people who work with victims of same-sex partner abuse, Topics such as HIV, and same-sex domestic violence, establishing safe-home networks for battered gay men, courtroom advocacy, coalition building, and sexual and dating violence prevention. In each chapter, authors are sensitive and responsive to multicultural issues and to broad issues of social oppression and avoid "one-size-fits-all" assumptions and conclusions.

A raw, gritty and hot read from the author of The Artists Trilogy, Love, in English and The Pact. Filled with forbidden love, twisted lives, and explosive action, and set in the scorching heat and headiness of Mexico, fans of Joanna Wylde, Kristen Proby and Tarryn Fisher won't want to miss this. For Luisa Chavez, former beauty queen, every day is a struggle to survive. Working as a waitress in Cabo San Lucas is her only hope until Salvador Reyes, depraved leader of a Mexican drug cartel, offers her a lifeline. Salvador wants Luisa as his prized wife, and she can't say no. Robbed of all her freedom, even the finest wines and most precious jewels can't make up for the ugliness and violence of her marriage. Desperate to escape, Luisa's wish comes true in the deadliest form: Javier Bernal, head of a rival cartel. Javier will stop at nothing to get what he wants. And he wants to take Luisa, use her, and ruin her. Unless she ruins him first... Don't miss Book Two in the Dirty Angels series, Dirty Deeds - for more dark, dangerous and breathtakingly sexy action. And be sure to catch The Artists Trilogy for more of Javier...

Queer survivors piece together the clues to discover their own lives Dangerous Families: Queer Writing on Surviving goes beyond the recovery narrative to create a new queer literature of investigation, exploration, and transformation. Twenty-six stories illuminate the reality of growing up in fear, struggling to rebuild lives damaged by sexual, physical, and/or emotional abuse. The book explores how abuse turns queer survivors-male, female, and transgendered-into healers, heartbreakers, and homicidal maniacs, presenting brilliant stories that sear and soar. Dangerous Families: Queer Writing on Surviving addresses all forms of abuse head-on, representing a cross-section of queer survivors in terms of race, class, ethnicity, education, origin, sexuality, and gender. Contributors use their own life experiences to create a book that takes back control from well-meaning "outsiders," as they recount the daily struggle to overcome the damage done to their minds, bodies, and spirits in a world that denies their gender, sexual, and social identities. From the editor: "Dangerous Families consists entirely of writing by survivors of childhood abuse. That's right-no therapists analyzing our plight, no talk-show hosts exploiting us-just survivors, exploring our complicated, frightening, and fulfilling lives. These stories dispense with the usual technique of carefully massaging the reader's fragile worldview before plunging this unsuspecting innocent into a world of horror. They go right to the horror, the beauty, and the joy, often throwing the reader off-guard, revealing layers of meaning before the reader can step back." Dangerous Families: Queer Writing on Surviving is an anthology of 26 true stories of growing up queer in families that magnify the horrors of the outside world instead of offering protection. The book is an essential read for therapists, caseworkers, cultural studies specialists, and anyone struggling to survive childhood

Violence against women has been a focus of transnational advocacy networks since the early 1980s, and the United Nations has, in intervening years, passed a series of resolutions to condemn, prevent, investigate, and punish this violence. Member states have committed to implementing this agenda. Yet, despite this buy-in at the global level, implementation at the domestic level remains uneven. Scholars have found that states are more likely to translate global standards into national laws when pressured by women's movements and international organizations. However, a dearth of research on the implementation - at the national and street-levels - of these international women's rights norms hampers an understanding of what happens after states pass laws. In Africa, where most states have not prioritized the prevention of violence against women, and the majority of perpetrators act with impunity, there is a major implementation gap. This gap is acute in some post-conflict countries on the continent. Thus, despite the presence of laws on various forms of violence against women in most African countries, justice remains inaccessible to most victims. In Global Norms and Local Action, Peace A. Medie studies the domestic implementation of international norms by examining how and why two post-conflict states in Africa, Liberia and Cote d'Ivoire, have differed in their responses to rape and domestic violence. Specifically, she looks at the roles of the United Nations and women's movements in the establishment of specialized criminal justice sector agencies, and the referral of cases for prosecution. She argues that variation in implementation in Liberia and Cote d'Ivoire can be explained by the levels of international and domestic pressures that states face and by the favorability of domestic political and institutional conditions. Medie's study is based on interviews with over 300 policymakers, bureaucrats, staff at the UN and NGOs, police officers, and survivors of domestic violence and rape - an unprecedented depth of research into women's rights and gender violence norm implementation in post-conflict countries. Furthermore, through her interviews with survivors of violence, Medie explains not only how states implement anti-rape and anti-domestic violence norms, but also how women experience and are affected by these norms. She draws on this research to recommend that states adopt a holistic approach to addressing violence against women.

Learn how to help children cope with domestic violence! The Effects of Intimate Partner Violence on Children examines the short- and long-term developmental issues facing children exposed to violence in their own homes. The book addresses the growing concern for children at risk of suffering psychological, behavioral, social, and educational problems, and for the effects childhood maltreatment may have on their adult lives. An interdisciplinary panel of researchers, academicians, attorneys, clinicians, and practitioners discuss treatment programs, theoretical perspectives, research and methodological issues, assessment and intervention, and forensic issues, including child custody. The Effects of Intimate Partner Violence on Children addresses the emotional and behavioral disturbances children can suffer after being exposed to violence between their parents. It examines methodological and theoretical challenges, pilot programs for treatment, intervention models, therapeutic curricula, and family law. Practitioners and academics review dozens of studies, representative samples, probability samples, and research findings relating to children's internalizing and externalizing behaviors, adjustment difficulties, coping strategies. The book also examines: the association between emotional regulation and emotionality and marital and parent-child conflict in terms of children's adjustment and physical health how the experience of mothers in low-income families suffering severe physical abuse relates to children's behavior problems. how father-to-mother aggression reduces children's affinity with their parents problems of service delivery for battered mothers Canadian legislation involving wife abuse and child custody the well-being of families accessing treatment group interventions implemented in family agency and school settings how to develop interagency protocols and much more! The Effects of Intimate Partner Violence on Children is an essential resource for professionals, advocates, and practitioners who work with abused children and maltreating families.

What should public prosecutors do when victims withdraw support for domestic violence prosecutions? The answer to this question that motivates the investigation undertaken in this book defends the claim that (other things being equal) domestic violence prosecutors should respond as feminists.
This claim is intended as a provocative formulation of the proposition that domestic violence prosecutors should act for reasons generated by the value of reconstituting communities as less patriarchal.
This thesis is defended first by developing a general theory of prosecutorial practical reasoning, and then by considering the prosecution of domestic violence offences in particular. Along the way, this book provides an original account of the nature of prosecutorial action, the values that can be realized through such action, and the relationship between these values and the practical reasoning of criminal prosecutors.
Moreover, it provides original analyses of two key concepts, domestic violence and patriarchy, and explains the relevance of the latter to a proper understanding of the former.
These insights are put to work in answering the motivating question stated above, and provide answers both in terms of what prosecutors would be justified in doing, and what prosecutors should do in order to be effective.

Help ease the secret suffering of lesbians in abusive relationships Why is woman-on-woman violence so often ignored or discounted? Intimate Betrayal: Domestic Violence in Lesbian Relationships uncovers the hidden problem of lesbians who hurt the women they love. This long-needed book brings together theory, practice, and research to suggest new and fruitful ways to understand, prevent, and treat this common problem. Intimate Betrayal provides new empirical research into the psychological and sociocultural causes of abuse. As several of the chapter authors demonstrate, neither traditional feminist theories about power nor heterosexist paradigms explain the causes, dynamics, or treatment of this problem. However, the new research presented here suggests helpful diagnostic criteria and effective treatments. Intimate Betrayal analyzes the factors that contribute to lesbian domestic violence, including: heterosexism and homophobia minority stress emotional isolation and lack of community ties revictimization of women who have previously suffered abuse The thorough literature review included reveals the paucity of attention that has been paid to this problem. Intimate Betrayal suggests exciting new models for freeing women from domestic violence, including the use of clinical and community resources and liberation theology. Community activists, counselors, and psychologists will be intrigued by the insightful analysis of the root causes of lesbian-on-lesbian violence and the valuable treatment suggestions. Researchers will welcome the new avenues it opens for additional research.

Help ease the secret suffering of lesbians in abusive relationships!Why is woman-on-woman violence so often ignored or discounted? Intimate Betrayal: Domestic Violence in Lesbian Relationships uncovers the hidden problem of lesbians who hurt the women they love. This long-needed book brings together theory, practice, and research to suggest new and fruitful ways to understand, prevent, and treat this common problem. Intimate Betrayal provides new empirical research into the psychological and sociocultural causes of abuse. As several of the chapter authors demonstrate, neither traditional feminist theories about power nor heterosexist paradigms explain the causes, dynamics, or treatment of this problem. However, the new research presented here suggests helpful diagnostic criteria and effective treatments. Intimate Betrayal analyzes the factors that contribute to lesbian domestic violence, including: heterosexism and homophobia minority stress emotional isolation and lack of community ties revictimization of women who have previously suffered abuseThe thorough literature review included reveals the paucity of attention that has been paid to this problem. Intimate Betrayal suggests exciting new models for freeing women from domestic violence, including the use of clinical and community resources and liberation theology. Community activists, counselors, and psychologists will be intrigued by the insightful analysis of the root causes of lesbian-on-lesbian violence and the valuable treatment suggestions. Researchers will welcome the new avenues it opens for additional research.

Domestic violence, interpersonal violence, intimate partner violence, or gender-based violence continues to be a social problem that is rarely understood or discussed in many parts of society, worldwide. The same holds true in the Anglophone Caribbean. Most Caribbean societies are patriarchal in nature, as most men govern and create the political and economic landscape where citizens live. This edited volume brings together reputable scholars of rigorous academic research from various disciplines (e.g., political science, law, linguistics, criminology, nursing, social work and psychology) to clearly explain the conceptual definition of domestic violence within the Latin American and Caribbean region's socio-political context. It will highlight who are the perpetrators as well as the victims of domestic violence and the consequences of allowing domestic violence to perpetuate in the region. This book is unique in the market today, as it is the only book grounded in the Caribbean providing a comprehensive overview of domestic violence with regards to the significance, victims, perpetrators, and the consequences.

What can schools and social care workers do to help children affected by domestic violence?

Large numbers of children are affected by domestic violence. The problem crosses every social class and culture. It causes distress and anxiety in children and adversely affects their learning and play, as well as their behaviour, wellbeing and attendance.

Education staff may know of a child or family in crisis, want to help, yet feel outside their comfort zone, grappling with a complex issue not covered in their training. This book describes the impact of domestic violence on children and provides support for education and social care professionals. It takes heavy workloads into account and suggests practical ways of meeting the needs of pupils who come from difficult home backgrounds.

The authors provide guidance and advice on:

• identifying and responding to signs of distress
• helping pupils to talk about and make sense of their experiences
• the impact on parenting and how parents can be supported
• the needs of young people in refuges and temporary accommodation
• pupil safety and government safeguarding guidelines
• educating young people and the community about domestic violence
• specialist domestic violence services and other agencies that support schools.

Domestic Violence and Children draws on the expertise of a wide range of professionals, including specialist domestic violence children's workers and counsellors, psychologists, teachers, mentors and family support workers. It provides essential help and information to all children's service directorates, as well as a range of professionals in education, social care, health and the voluntary sector.

This book considers whether coercive control (particularly non-physical forms of family violence) should be prohibited by the criminal law. Based on the premise that traditional understandings of family violence are severely limited, it considers whether the core of family violence is power-based controlling or coercive behavior: attempts by men to psychologically dominate their partners. Such behavior can cause significant psychological, physical and economic harms to victims and is increasingly recognized as a form of human rights abuse. The book considers the new offences that have been introduced in England and Wales (controlling or coercive behavior), Ireland (controlling behavior) and Scotland (domestic abuse). It invites consideration of three key questions: Do conventional criminal laws adequately regulate non-physical abuse? Is the criminal law an appropriate mechanism for responding to the coercive control of family members? And if a new and distinctive offence is warranted, what is the optimal form of that offence? This ground-breaking work is essential reading for researchers and practitioners interested in coercive control and the proper role of the criminal law as a mechanism for regulating family violence.

You can come to understand the nature, causes, consequences, and treatments for domestic violence In reading Women and Domestic Violence: An Interdisciplinary Approach, you'll come to see the need for a more transdisciplinary attack on one of the world's greatest and most historically prevalent social crimes: spouse abuse. This collection of legal, psychological, criminological, and law enforcement approaches to this long-standing problem will expand your range of understanding and more directly focus your efforts to stamp out family abuse in your neighborhood. Overall, Women and Domestic Violence will show you how spousal abuse has damaged our society since the times of Homer, rocked our families since the colonists settled in America, and strained our prisons since the days of Julius Caesar. Also, more importantly, you'll explore current data regarding police handlings of domestic abuse calls and see what today's psychological literature is saying about the developments of this behavioral disorder.Specifically, you'll read about: the history of wife abuse the latest trends in civil legal relief an overview of how police deal with domestic violence calls the impact of batterer counseling on the frequency of domestic assault incidents Everyone, including chiefs of police, family science educators, law professors, judges, and psychologists interested in stemming the rising tide of domestic assault occurrences will want to read Women and Domestic Violence. Its timely and up-to-date contents will help steer your community away from repeating history's shameful mistakes, and you'll find what you can do in your field to restore discipline and contentment to the families in your neighborhood.

Violence and abuse that occur behind closed doors are not just personal concerns or issues. Family violence is a major mental health, social service, health care, and criminal justice problem that society cannot continue to ignore. Violence and Sexual Abuse at Home gives you the facts of spouse/partner and child maltreatment, an analysis of the intervention and prevention techniques commonly used, and alternative approaches and theories for understanding and reducing instances of family abuse.The factors behind maltreatment are multiple and diverse. Because there are so many approaches to treating perpetrators and victims, choosing a treatment strategy can sometimes feel overwhelming. Use Violence and Sexual Abuse at Home to help you decide which treatment models will be most effective in particular situations. Don t risk low success rates with your patients. This comprehensive guidebook can help you refine your treatment strategies, as you better your understanding of: mutual combat the ethical issues and legal mandates involved in reporting family maltreatment biological issues and aggression the causes of the physical maltreatment of children maltreatment of children with disabilities the debate surrounding "parent alienation syndrome" difficulties in diagnosing incest offenders the impact of child sexual maltreatment on the survivor's sexuality and sexual functioning the repression, dissociation, and delayed recall of traumatic eventsViolence and Sexual Abuse at Home shows clinicians, researchers, advocates, and other professionals the importance of broadening their perspectives of all types of family maltreatment. Anyone working with people who abuse and/or with adults and children who are or have been abused should understand the developmental, social, psychological, cultural, and biological issues at play in violent home environments.

For women experiencing domestic violence, narrative therapy can be a powerful tool to help them gain self-confidence and a sense of identity, resist violence, and make the transition from abuse to safety. Drawing on the narratives of women who have experienced domestic violence, this book explores how women employ strategies of resistance, and how strengthening their sense of identity can contribute to this resistance. It demonstrates how narrative therapy can be used as an effective intervention, helping women to leave abusive relationships and supporting them in moving on. The author outlines a model for intervention and discusses how to work with women whilst keeping their safety in mind. This book will be invaluable to counsellors, social workers and others working with abused women, helping them to understand, engage with and fully support women to resist and move on from abuse.

Carefully organized and tightly edited, this insightful book considers potential causes of men's violence against women, utilizing a variety of theoretical perspectives. It summarizes what is known about the multiple causes of men's violence against women and the importance of identifying men's risk factors in order to prevent future violence. The editors' approach is unique but systematic. In chapter 2, the editors present a preliminary multivariate model that explains men's violence against women by identifying four content areas: macrosocietal, biological, gender role socialization, and relation factors. Within these four areas, the editors develop thirteen preliminary hypotheses about the causes of men's violence against women. In the subsequent chapters the contributing authors critique or react to specific parts of the multivariate model and address one or more of the 13 hypotheses in the presentation of their own ideas about the causes of men's violence against women. In the concluding chapter, the editors summarize the contributors' reactions to the original hypotheses by creating a revised multivariate model of risk factors for men's violence against women. The final model includes biological, socialization, psychological, psychosocial, relational, and macrosocietal factors. Furthermore, the model is explained through 13 theoretical propositions, 40 research hypotheses, and over 60 risk variables related to men's violence against women. The book closes with a discussion of men's protective, resiliency, and vulnerability factors as well as future directions for theory development, advocacy, and the prevention of violence against women.

Intimate Partner Violence is a serious social problem affecting millions in the United States and worldwide. The image of violence enacted by a male aggressor to a female victim dominates public perceptions of intimate partner violence (IPV). This volume examines how this heteronormativity influences reporting and responding to partner violence when those involved do not fit the stereotype of a typical victim of IPV. Research and theory have helped us to understand power dynamics about heterosexual IPV; this book encourages greater attention to the unique issues and power dynamics of IPV in sexual minority populations. Divided into five distinct sections, chapters address research and theories associated with IPV, examining the similarities and differences of IPV within heterosexual and gender minority relationships. Among the topics discussed: Research methodology and scope of the problem Primary prevention and intervention of IPV among sexual and gender minorities Barriers to help-seeking among various populations Promoting outreach and advocacy Criminal justice response to IPV With recommendations for intervention and prevention, criminal justice response and policy, Intimate Partner Violence and the LGBT+ Community: Understanding Power Dynamics will be of use to students, researchers, and practitioners of psychology, criminal justice, and public policy.

Child protection and family workers can complete training without learning about how to work with domestic abuse perpetrators - but intervening at an early stage can make a real difference to increasing family safety. This concise book equips practitioners with the knowledge and techniques they need to make the most of limited client contact with perpetrators. It outlines how to briefly assess perpetrators, how to prepare them for a perpetrator programme, and describes a range of interventions that can be used to reduce the risk they represent in the meantime. Drawing on approaches from motivational work, anger management, CBT and feminist models, but written in practical and easy to follow language, the book provides guidance for carrying out interviews and assessing risk, how to use safety plans, signals and time outs, understanding the impact of abuse on victims, how to analyse incidents of abuse and how to make an effective referral. This reliable guide is a useful reference for any child protection worker wanting to make the most of the valuable opportunity they have to engage with domestic violence perpetrators.

explores the competing and contradictory understandings of violence against women and men's responsibility, situating these within the personal and political intersections of neoliberal and 'postfeminist' imperatives of individualisation, choice, and empowerment. explores themes of responsibility for violence, and the social and legal consequences that men and women uniquely or differently encounter. examines the politicised claims regarding the 'responsibility' of men and women as both victims and offenders in intimate relationships. deploying a range of interdisciplinary approaches, it utilises a blend of cultural theory and psychosocial analysis to offer an account of the infiltration of postfeminist and neoliberal sensibilities of individualism and responsibilisation in the social, legal, and interpersonal imaginary. makes contributions to several fields, such as the current public policy initiatives to hold men accountable for violence against women; understanding public attitudes to violence against women; and contextualising the challenges faced by a number of feminist reforms that seek to address these issues. An accessible and compelling read, Gender, Homicide, and the Politics of Responsibility will appeal to students and scholars of criminology, sociology, gender studies and those interested in understanding the debates surrounding violence against women, violence by women, and the social construction of responsibility and responsibilisation.

The literature on domestic violence will often treat homicide as its most extreme outcome. The reality is more nuanced, with many domestic homicides occurring within a history of abusive behaviour. This book offers a much-needed synthesis of the literature on domestic homicide, covering its history; the theories supporting it; its various forms such as filicide, intimate partner homicide, parricide, siblicide and familicide; and its prevention. The authors explore the predominant theories that have been used to explain domestic homicides in general, as well as specific subtypes of domestic homicide. Each chapter then takes a chronological approach in examining relationships between victim and perpetrator in the most prominent types of domestic homicide. Drawing on the empirical evidence, it offers a unique insight into the dynamics of domestic homicides, and debunks some of the common stereotypes surrounding it. The book concludes with an overview of the main areas of prevention of domestic homicide and offers recommendations for professionals working in domestic violence services, medical practitioners and mental health services. This book will be of interest to criminologists, psychiatrists, psychologists and sociologists alike, and will be key reading for a range of courses on violence, abuse and aggression.

'Takes the tradition of the British family novel and transcends it' Yara Rodrigues Fowler 'Intimate, emotional and witty' Justin Myers Billie and Tom have just lost their father. It should be a time to comfort each other, but there's always been a distance to their relationship. Determined to change this, Billie boards a flight to her brother in Paris. Dazed by grief, the siblings spend days wandering the streets, both helping and hurting each other in the process. When their explorations lead them to the infamous Paris catacombs, they will finally be forced to face the secrets lurking in their past that illuminate the questions in their present. Funny, moving and unexpected, DEEP DOWN is an empathetic and hard-hitting look at both the struggles and the joys of sibling relationships, and the realities of grieving the loss of someone who was already an absence.

This book makes an important contribution to the international understanding of domestic violence and shares the latest knowledge of what causes and sustains domestic violence between intimate partners, as well as the effectiveness of responses in working with adult and child victims, and those who act abusively towards their partners. Drawing upon a wide range of contemporary research from across the globe, it recognises that domestic violence is both universal, but also shaped by local cultures and contexts. Divided into seven parts: * Introduction. * Theoretical perspectives on domestic violence and abuse. * Domestic violence and abuse across the life-course. * Manifestations of domestic violence and abuse. * Responding to domestic violence and abuse. * Researching domestic violence and abuse. * Concluding thoughts. It will be of interest to all academics and students working in social work, allied health, sociology, criminology and gender studies as well as policy professionals looking for new approaches to the subject.

Domestic violence is an intractable social problem that must be understood in order to be eradicated. Using theories of indexicality, identity, and narrative, Andrus presents data from interviews she conducted with victims and law enforcement, and analyses the narratives of their interactions and the identities that emerge. She gives insight into law enforcement views on violence, and prevalent misconceptions, in order to create resources to improve communication with victim/survivors. She also analyzes the ways in which identity emerges and is performed via narrative constructions of domestic violence and encounters between police and victim/survivors. By giving voice to the victims of domestic violence, this book provides powerful insights into the ways that ideology and commonplace misconceptions impact the social construction of domestic violence. It will be invaluable to students and researchers in discourse analysis, applied linguistics and forensic linguistics.

The need for children and young people to learn about violence against women and girls (VAWG) has been voiced since the late 1980s. This is the first ever book on educational work to prevent VAWG, providing the most comprehensive contribution to our knowledge and understanding in this area. By bringing together international examples of research and practice, the book offers insight into the underpinning theoretical debates and key lessons for practice, addressing the complexities and challenges of developing, implementing and evaluating educational work to prevent VAWG. This multidisciplinary book will be of interest to educationalists, VAWG and child welfare practitioners, policy makers, researchers and students.

Domestic violence has been with us a very long time - it has a beginning and it must have an ending. The pace of change has been slow because men have failed to take responsibility for ending the violence. This book challenges men to take that responsibility seriously, especially the men in government throughout the region. The focus is the Americas since the problem of violence is most urgent there, where 42 of the world's 50 most violent cities are located. The possibilities for progressive governments in the region to take up the proposed solutions are realistic and imperative.