This book is dedicated to the nascent discussion of the legal aspects of human exploration and possible settlement of Mars, and provides fresh insights and new ideas in two key areas. The first one revolves around the broader aspects of current space law, such as intellectual property rights in outer space, the legal implications of contact with extra-terrestrial intelligence, legal considerations around the freedom of exploration and use, and the International Space Station agreement as a precedent for Mars. The second one focuses on the creation and management of a new society on Mars, and includes topics such as human reproduction and childbirth, the protection of human rights in privately-funded settlements, legal aspects of a Martian power grid, and criminal justice on the red planet. With multiple national space agencies and commercial enterprises focusing on Mars, it is more than likely that a human presence will be established on the red planet in the coming decades. While the foundation of international space law, laid primarily by the Outer Space Treaty, remains the framework within which humans will engage with Mars, new and unforeseen challenges have arisen, driven particularly by the rapid pace of technological advancement in recent years. To ensure that space law can keep up with these developments, a new scholarly work such as the present one is critical. By bringing together a number of fresh international perspectives on the topic, the book is of interest to all scholars and professionals working in the space field.

Today many scientists recognize plasma as the key element in understanding new observations in interplanetary and interstellar space, in stars, galaxies, and clusters of galaxies, and throughout the observable universe. Plasma astrophysics and cosmology, as a unified discipline, cover topics such as the large-scale structure and filamentation of the universe; the microwave background; the formation of galaxies and magnetic fields; active galactic nuclei and quasars; the origin and abundance of light elements; star formation and the evolution of solar systems; redshift periodicities and anomalous redshifts; general relativity; electric fields; the acceleration of charged particles to high energies; and cosmic rays. This text provides an update on the observations made in radio, optical and high-energy astrophysics, especially since 1985, and addresses the paradigm changing discoveries made by the planetary probes and satellites, radio telescopes, and the Hubble space telescope. Over 20 contributors, all distinguished plasma scientists, present a picture of the nature of our plasma universe with articles ranging from the popular level to advanced topics in plasma cosmology.

Double and multiple stars are the rule in the stellar population, and single stars the minority, as the abundance of binary systems in the space surrounding the sun shows beyond doubt. Numerous stellar features, and methods of their exploration, ensue specifically from the one but widespread property, the binary nature. Stellar masses are basic quantities for the theory of stellar structure and evolution, and they are ob tained from binary-star orbits where they depend on the cube of observed parameters; this fact illustrates the significance of orbits as well as the accuracy requirements. Useful in dating stellar history is the knowledge that components of a system, different though they may appear, are of the same origin and age. Between star formation and the genesis of binaries a direct connection can be traced. The later stages of stellar life branch into a great variety as mutual influence between the components of a close binary pair develops. Transfer and exchange of mass and the presence of angular momentum in the orbit give rise to special tracks of evolution, not found for single stars, and to peculiar spectral groups. This is not a new story but it has a new ending: The patterns of evolution involving mass transfer appear to lead ultimately to single objects."

Short Historical Overview In the 1940s, two phenomena in the ?eld of cosmic rays (CR) forced scientists to think that the Sun is a powerful source of high-energy particles. One of these was discovered because of the daily solar variation of CR, which the maximum number of CR observed near noon (referring to the existence of continuous ?ux of CR from the direction of the Sun); this became the experimental basis of the theory that CR's originate from the Sun (or, for that matter, from within the solar system) (Alfven 1954). The second phenomenon was discovered when large ?uxes of high energy particles were detected from several solar ?ares, or solar CR. These are the - called ground level events (GLE), and were ?rst observed by ionization chambers shielded by 10 cm Pb (and detected mainly from the secondary muon-component CR that they caused) during the events of the 28th of February 1942, the 7th of March 1942, the 25th of July 1946, and the 19th of November 1949. The biggest such event was detected on the 23rd of February 1956 (see the detailed description in Chapters X and XI of Dorman, M1957). The ?rst phenomenon was investigated in detail in Dorman (M1957), by ?rst correcting experimental data on muon temperature effects and then by using coupling functions to determine the change in particle energy caused by the solar-diurnal CR variation."

Measurements of solar irradiance, both bolometric and at various wavelengths, over the last two decades have established conclusively that the solar energy flux varies on a wide range of time scales, from minutes to the 11-year solar cycle. The major question is how the solar variability influences the terrestrial climate. The Solar Electromagnetic Radiation Study for Solar Cycle 22 (SOLERS22) is an international research program operating under the auspices of the Solar-Terrestrial Energy Program (STEP) Working Group 1: The Sun as a Source of Energy and Disturbances'. STEP is sponsored by the Scientific Committee of Solar-Terrestrial Physics (SCOSTEP) of the International Council of Scientific Unions (ICSU). The main goal of the SOLERS22 1996 Workshop was to bring the international research community together to review the most recent results obtained from observations, theoretical interpretation, empirical and physical models of the variations in the solar energy flux and their possible impact on climate studies. These questions are essential for researchers and graduate students in solar-terrestrial physics.

This fully-updated second edition remains the only truly detailed exploration of the origins of our Solar System, written by an authority in the field. Unlike other authors, Michael Woolfson focuses on the formation of the solar system, engaging the reader in an intelligent yet accessible discussion of the development of ideas about how the Solar System formed from ancient times to the present.Within the last five decades new observations and new theoretical advances have transformed the way scientists think about the problem of finding a plausible theory. Spacecraft and landers have explored the planets of the Solar System, observations have been made of Solar-System bodies outside the region of the planets and planets have been detected and observed around many solar-type stars. This new edition brings in the most recent discoveries, including the establishment of dwarf planets and challenges to the 'standard model' of planet formation - the Solar Nebula Theory.While presenting the most up-to-date material and the underlying science of the theories described, the book avoids technical jargon and terminology. It thus remains a digestible read for the non-expert interested reader, whilst being detailed and comprehensive enough to be used as an undergraduate physics and astronomy textbook, where the formation of the solar system is a key part of the course.Michael Woolfson is Emeritus Professor of Theoretical Physics at University of York and is an award-winning crystallographer and astronomer.

This fully-updated second edition remains the only truly detailed exploration of the origins of our Solar System, written by an authority in the field. Unlike other authors, Michael Woolfson focuses on the formation of the solar system, engaging the reader in an intelligent yet accessible discussion of the development of ideas about how the Solar System formed from ancient times to the present.Within the last five decades new observations and new theoretical advances have transformed the way scientists think about the problem of finding a plausible theory. Spacecraft and landers have explored the planets of the Solar System, observations have been made of Solar-System bodies outside the region of the planets and planets have been detected and observed around many solar-type stars. This new edition brings in the most recent discoveries, including the establishment of dwarf planets and challenges to the 'standard model' of planet formation - the Solar Nebula Theory.While presenting the most up-to-date material and the underlying science of the theories described, the book avoids technical jargon and terminology. It thus remains a digestible read for the non-expert interested reader, whilst being detailed and comprehensive enough to be used as an undergraduate physics and astronomy textbook, where the formation of the solar system is a key part of the course.Michael Woolfson is Emeritus Professor of Theoretical Physics at University of York and is an award-winning crystallographer and astronomer.

This symposium was devoted to the so-called minor bodies in the Solar System, and their mutual interrelationships. Asteroids, comets and meteors provide essential information on the history of the Solar System, starting with the early phases of planetary formation, until the present epoch. Different evolutionary processes have shaped the physical characteristics of the populations of minor bodies. Among them, collisional phenomena have played an essential role, as has been generally recognized by modern planetary research. This symposium was one step in the effort to sketch a general unifying scenario of the properties of the different populations of minor bodies, which are generally studied by separate scientific communities. In particular, the most recent findings on the interrelationships between asteroids, comets and meteoroids suggest that an interdisciplinary approach should be preferred. Only in this way can the properties of different populations of minor bodies be interpreted in the framework of a coherent picture of the history and evolution of the Solar System.

What is a planet? The answer may seem obvious; still, the definition of a planet has continuously evolved over the centuries, and their number has changed following successive discoveries. In 2006, the decision endorsed by the International Astronomical Union to remove Pluto from the list of planets has well illustrated the difficulty associated with their definition. The recent discovery of hundreds of exoplanets around nearby stars of our Galaxy opens a new and spectacular dimension to astrophysics. We presently know very little about the physical nature of exoplanets. In contrast, our knowledge on solar system planets has made huge progress over the past decades, thanks, especially, to space planetary exploration. The purpose of this book is first to characterize what planets are, in their global properties and in their diversity. Then, this knowledge is used to try to imagine the physical nature of exoplanets, starting from the few parameters we know about them. Throughout, we keep in mind the ultimate question of the search for possible extraterrestrial life: Could life exist or have existed in the solar system and beyond?Therese Encrenaz is Emeritus Senior Scientist at the Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique. She works at the Observatoire de Paris, at the Laboratoire d'Etudes Spatiales et d'Instrumentation en Astrophysique (LESIA). She is a specialist of the study of planetary atmospheres, and has been involved in several space missions.

Eleven planetary atmospheres are included for detailed study in this reference/text, four for the giant planets (Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune), four for the small bodies (Io, Titan, Triton, and Pluto), and three for the terrestrial planets (Mars, Venus, and Earth). The authors have carried out a comprehensive survey of the principal chemical cycles that control the present composition and past history of planetary atmospheres, using the database provided by recent spacecraft missions supplemented by Earth-based observations.

This textbook is intended to be used in a lecture course for college students majoring in Earth Sciences. Planetary science provides an opportunity for these students to apply a wide range of subject matter pertaining to the Earth to the study of other planets and their principal satellites. In this way, planetary science tends to unify subjects in the Earth Sciences that are traditionally taught separately. Therefore, planetary science is well-suited to be taught as a capstone course for senior undergraduates in geology departments and as an introduction to the solar system in astronomy departments. Both groups of students will benefit because planetary science bridges the gap between geology and astronomy and it prepares geologists and astronomers to participate actively in the on-going exploration of the solar system.

The book begins with a historical review of four major theories for the origin of the Solar System in particular, or of planets in general, which highlight the major problems that need to be solved by any plausible theory. In many theories, including that which form the major theme of this book, the formation of planets and stars is intimately linked, so four chapters are devoted to the processes that can be described as the birth, life and death of stars.Recent observations that have revealed the existence of planets around many Sun-like stars are described in detail, followed by a clear exposition of the Capture Theory for the origin of planets. Many aspects of this theory are illustrated with sophisticated computer modelling that convincingly demonstrates the plausibility of the theory. The Capture Theory is in complete accord with all observations, including the estimate it gives for the proportion of Sun-like stars with planets. It is the only theory that sits comfortably with all present observational and theoretical constraints.The general theory of planet formation does not explain the detailed structure of the Solar System. An early postulated collision of two major planets is shown to explain many disparate features of the Solar System - the nature of the terrestrial planets, surface features of the Moon and its relationship with Earth, asteroids, comets and dwarf planets, the relationship between Neptune, Triton and Pluto and the characteristics of meteorites, including the isotopic anomalies found in them. The postulate of a planetary collision is given support by a 2009 NASA observation of the residue of such an event around a distant young star.

The book begins with a historical review of four major theories for the origin of the Solar System in particular, or of planets in general, which highlight the major problems that need to be solved by any plausible theory. In many theories, including that which form the major theme of this book, the formation of planets and stars is intimately linked, so four chapters are devoted to the processes that can be described as the birth, life and death of stars. Recent observations that have revealed the existence of planets around many Sun-like stars are described in detail, followed by a clear exposition of the Capture Theory for the origin of planets. Many aspects of this theory are illustrated with sophisticated computer modelling that convincingly demonstrates the plausibility of the theory. The Capture Theory is in complete accord with all observations, including the estimate it gives for the proportion of Sun-like stars with planets. It is the only theory that sits comfortably with all present observational and theoretical constraints. The general theory of planet formation does not explain the detailed structure of the Solar System. An early postulated collision of two major planets is shown to explain many disparate features of the Solar System - the nature of the terrestrial planets, surface features of the Moon and its relationship with Earth, asteroids, comets and dwarf planets, the relationship between Neptune, Triton and Pluto and the characteristics of meteorites, including the isotopic anomalies found in them. The postulate of a planetary collision is given support by a 2009 NASA observation of the residue of such an event around a distant young star.

This revised edition places a unique emphasis on all the new results from ground-based, satellites and space missions -- detection of molecule H2 and prompt emission lines of OH for the first time; discovery of X-rays in comets; observed diversity in chemical composition among comets; the puzzle of the constancy of spin temperature; the well-established mineralogy of cometary dust; extensive theoretical modeling carried out for understanding the observed effects; the similarity in the mineralogy of dust in circumstellar shell of stars, comets, meteorites, asteroids and IDPs, thus indicating the generic relationship between them.

Planetary atmospheres is a relatively new, interdisciplinary subject that incorporates various areas of the physical and chemical sciences, including geophysics, geophysical fluid dynamics, atmospheric science, astronomy, and astrophysics. Providing a much-needed resource for this cross-disciplinary field, An Introduction to Planetary Atmospheres presents current knowledge on atmospheres and the fundamental mechanisms operating on them. The author treats the topics in a comparative manner among the different solar system bodies-what is known as comparative planetology. Based on an established course, this comprehensive text covers a panorama of solar system bodies and their relevant general properties. It explores the origin and evolution of atmospheres, along with their chemical composition and thermal structure. It also describes cloud formation and properties, mechanisms in thin and upper atmospheres, and meteorology and dynamics. Each chapter focuses on these atmospheric topics in the way classically done for the Earth's atmosphere and summarizes the most important aspects in the field. The study of planetary atmospheres is fundamental to understanding the origin of the solar system, the formation mechanisms of planets and satellites, and the day-to-day behavior and evolution of Earth's atmosphere. With many interesting real-world examples, this book offers a unified vision of the chemical and physical processes occurring in planetary atmospheres. Ancillaries are available at www.ajax.ehu.es/planetary_atmospheres/

The present well-established study of planets orbiting stars other than our Sun, the exoplanets, was reviewed by the author in his earlier book Wandering Stars. This new and exciting field of study has expanded quickly, particularly due to technological advances in both Earth-based telescopes and, more recently, in the application of automatic space vehicles. Well over 300 exoplanets have now been catalogued, each of mass comparable to or greater than those of the major planets of the Solar System. Earth-sized bodies remain out of reach for the present. The data obtained so far show that the distribution of major planets in our Solar System is the exception rather than the rule, contrary to earlier expectations. A few exoplanet systems do, nevertheless, give the promise of broadly Solar System conditions with the possibility of Earth-like components in appropriate orbits.This immediately raises the age-old question of whether there can be life elsewhere in the Universe and whether this might involve advanced technologically-capable beings like ourselves. The topic is explored in this workbook. To gain a balanced perspective on these matters, the arguments are set against the broad panorama of the Universe on the one hand and on the evolution of life on Earth leading to Homo sapiens on the other. More than this, the apparatus for achieving technological excellence, such as the development of appropriate energy sources and the invention of the required mathematical skills, is also included. This wide range of arguments is unusual.This notebook-cum-workbook provides a firm and comprehensive introduction to these studies. It is written by an expert in the field for readers beginning to ponder these questions seriously. It is hoped that the reader will extend the arguments further as the subject develops. A special feature is an extensive compendium to act as the beginnings of a personal inventory. The Inverted Bowl is in a very real sense a companion to Wandering Stars.

The present well-established study of planets orbiting stars other than our Sun, the exoplanets, was reviewed by the author in his earlier book Wandering Stars. This new and exciting field of study has expanded quickly, particularly due to technological advances in both Earth-based telescopes and, more recently, in the application of automatic space vehicles. Well over 300 exoplanets have now been catalogued, each of mass comparable to or greater than those of the major planets of the Solar System. Earth-sized bodies remain out of reach for the present. The data obtained so far show that the distribution of major planets in our Solar System is the exception rather than the rule, contrary to earlier expectations. A few exoplanet systems do, nevertheless, give the promise of broadly Solar System conditions with the possibility of Earth-like components in appropriate orbits.This immediately raises the age-old question of whether there can be life elsewhere in the Universe and whether this might involve advanced technologically-capable beings like ourselves. The topic is explored in this workbook. To gain a balanced perspective on these matters, the arguments are set against the broad panorama of the Universe on the one hand and on the evolution of life on Earth leading to Homo sapiens on the other. More than this, the apparatus for achieving technological excellence, such as the development of appropriate energy sources and the invention of the required mathematical skills, is also included. This wide range of arguments is unusual.This notebook-cum-workbook provides a firm and comprehensive introduction to these studies. It is written by an expert in the field for readers beginning to ponder these questions seriously. It is hoped that the reader will extend the arguments further as the subject develops. A special feature is an extensive compendium to act as the beginnings of a personal inventory. The Inverted Bowl is in a very real sense a companion to Wandering Stars.

The full story of how our relationship with light shapes our health, productivity and mood.

'A sparkling and illuminating study, one of those rare books that could genuinely improve your life' Sunday Times

Since the dawn of time, humans have worshipped the sun. And with good reason. Our biology is set up to work in partnership with it. From our sleep cycles to our immune systems and our mental health, access to sunlight is crucial for living a happy and fulfilling life. New research suggests that our sun exposure over a lifetime - even before we were born - may shape our risk of developing a range of different illnesses, from depression to diabetes.

Bursting with cutting-edge science and eye-opening advice, Chasing the Sun explores the extraordinary significance of sunlight, from ancient solstice celebrations to modern sleep labs, and from the unexpected health benefits of sun exposure to what the Amish know about sleep that the rest of us don't.

As more of us move into light-polluted cities, spending our days in dim offices and our evenings watching brightly lit screens, we are in danger of losing something vital: our connection to the star that gave us life. It's a loss that could have far-reaching consequences that we're only just beginning to grasp.

1. 1. Short History of Solar Radio Astronomy Since its birth in the forties of our century, solar radio astronomy has grown into an extensive scientific branch comprising a number of quite different topics covering technical sciences, astrophysics, plasma physics, solar-terrestrial physics, and other disciplines. Historically, the story of radio astronomy goes back to the times of James Clerk Maxwell, whose well known phenomenological electromagnetic field equations have become the basis of present-time radio physics. As a direct consequence of these equations, Maxwell was able to prognosticate the existence of radio waves which fifteen years later were experimentally detected by the famous work of Heinrich Hertz (1887/88). However, all attempts to detect radio waves from cosmic objects failed until 1932, which was mainly due to the early stage of development of receiving techniques and the as yet missing knowledge of the existence of a screening ionosphere (which was detected in 1925). Therefore, famous inventors like Thomas Edison and A. E. Kennelly, as well as Sir Oliver Lodge, were unsuccessful in receiving any radio emission from the Sun or other extraterrestrial sources. Another hindering point was that nobody could a priori expect that solar radio emission should have something to do with solar activity so that unfortunately by chance some experiments were carried out just at periods of low solar activity. This was also why Karl Guthe Jansky at the birth of radio astronomy detected galactic radio waves but no emission from the Sun.

The origin and evolution of interplanetary dust have been extensively discussed ever since the 1960s when a series of meetings began which brought together the interplanetary dust community. More recently, during the 1980s, new knowledge has emerged from comprehensive studies of cometary flybys and from infrared space observations. At present new, in-situ explorations of interplanetary dust are providing some promising results. This work begins with investigations of interplanetary dust by space and Earth environment studies, by physics and chemical analysis, and by zodiacal light and optical studies. Topics related to cometary dust, meteoroids and meteor streams, and circumplanetary dust, which are indeed linked to the evolution of interplanetary dust, are then presented. Finally, the origin of interplanetary dust is tracked back to comets or asteroids and to interstellar or circumstellar dust. A summary demonstrates that interplanetary dust studies are thriving and may provide a clearer understadnign of the formation of the solar system.

Titan: Exploring an Earthlike World presents the only comprehensive description in book form of what is currently known about Titan, the largest satellite of the planet Saturn and arguably the most intriguing and mysterious world in the Solar System. Because of its resemblance to our own planet, Titan is often described as a "frozen primitive Earth" and is therefore of wide interest to scientists and educated laypersons from a wide range of backgrounds. The book aims to cater to all of these by using nontechnical language wherever possible, while maintaining a high standard of scientific rigor. The book is a fully revised and extensively updated edition of Titan: The Earthlike Moon, which was published in 1999, before the Cassini and Huygens missions arrived to orbit Saturn and land on Titan. As investigators on these missions, the authors use the latest results to present the most recent revelations and latest surprises about an exciting new world.

The Sunday Times Bestseller In Wonders of the Solar System - the book of the acclaimed BBC TV series - Professor Brian Cox will take us on a journey of discovery where alien worlds from your imagination become places we can see, feel and visit. The Wonders of the Solar System - from the giant ice fountains of Enceladus to the liquid methane seas of Titan and from storms twice the size of the Earth to the tortured moon of Io with its giant super-volcanoes - is the Solar System as you have never seen it before. In this series, Professor Brian Cox will introduce us to the planets and moons beyond our world, finding the biggest, most bizarre, most powerful natural phenomena. Using the latest scientific imagery along with cutting edge CGI and some of the most spectacular and extreme locations on Earth, Brian will show us Wonders never thought possible. Employing his trademark clear, authoritative, yet down-to-earth approach, Brian will explore how these previously unseen phenomena have dramatically expanded our horizons with new discoveries about the planets, their moons and how they came to be the way they are.

Every rock has a story tell, and none more so than those which have fallen from the sky: meteorites. Originating in the Asteroid Belt between Mars and Jupiter, these rocky fragments offer clues not just to the earliest origins of the Solar System but also to Earth's very survival into the future. Sky at Night presenter, Dr Tim Gregory takes us on a journey through the very earliest days of our Solar System to the spectacular meteorite falls that produced 'fiery rain' in 1792, to the pre-solar grains (literally stardust) that were blown in from other solar systems and are the oldest solid objects ever discovered on earth. Meteorites reveal a story much bigger than ourselves or our planet. As Tim says, 'it is an epic beyond compare'.

This book presents the latest knowledge of the newly discovered Earth-like exoplanets and reviews improvements in both radio and optical SETI. A key aim is to stimulate fresh discussion on algorithms that will be of high value in this extremely complicated search. Exoplanets resembling Earth could well be able to sustain life and support the evolution of technological civilizations, but to date, all searches for such life forms have proved fruitless. The failings of SETI observations are well recognized, and a new search approach is necessary. In this book, different detection algorithms that exploit state-of-the-art, low-cost, and extremely fast multiprocessors are examined and compared. Novel methods such as the agnostic entropy and high-sensitivity blind signal extraction algorithms should represent a quantum leap forward in SETI. The book is of interest to all researchers in the field and hopefully stimulates significant progress in the search for extraterrestrial intelligence.

There are several textbooks available on solar astronomy which deal with advanced astrophysical aspects of solar physics, and books which provide very elementary knowledge about the Sun. This book will help to bridge the gap. It aims to stimulate interest in solar astronomy, presenting at one place the basic methods and techniques used in the field, together with the latest findings and the excitement in solar physics. As solar astronomy is becoming very popular among amateur astronomers and laymen, the book provides the practical knowledge to build simple solar telescopes and other equipment for making solar observations. Amateur astronomers have made important contributions to solar astronomy, and this book will help to guide them in their endeavours. The book can also serve as a text for undergraduate and graduate students starting out on solar physics. Using it, graduate students can easily embark on specific topics of research in solar astronomy.