This second volume in the new series produced by the Mineralogical Society is concerned with the study of rocks from the deep continental crust. It is, we hope, timely to summarize recent petrological advances contributing to this field of active interest. Based mainly on review papers read at a conference, the chapters have subsequently been revised and expanded, while the editors have produced an introductory overview as Chapter 1. The conference was the Winter Meeting of the Mineralogical Society on 15 December 1988, at wh ich Prof. R. C. Newton delivered the 20th Hallimond Lecture of the Society (which forms the basis of Ch. 7). The editors are grateful to all who contrib uted to the smooth running of the meeting at Kingston Polytechnic, and in the ensuing preparation of the volume: in particular, we sincerely thank all of the following for their labours as referees: A. J. Baker, L. M. Barron, M. J. Bickle, A. D. Chambers, J. D. Clemens, J. S. Daly, G. T. R. Droop, C. R. L. Friend, E. S. Grew, S. L. Harley, R. S. Harmon, N. B. W. Harris, B. Harte, T. J. B. Holland, N. F. C. Hudson, W. S. MacKenzie, W. Perkins, H. R. Rollinson, J. W. Sheraton, D. J. Waters, R. H. Worden and B. W. D. Yardley. John R.

The papers of this book are based on a Symposium on Numerical Simulation in Oil Recovery held at the Institute for Mathematics and its Applications. The major research emphasis is on the modeling of fractures, heterogeneities, viscous fingering, and diffusion-dispersion effects in the flow in porous media. This volume contains seventeen comprehensive papers on the latest developments in this exciting subject. Its diverse presentation brings together the various disciplines of applied mathematics, chemical engineering, physics and hydrology.

The research on mineral deposits and the exploration of new vast resources made exceptional progress worldwide during the last decades. At the same time, mining activity has shifted from the historical European centres to other continents. Even though the mineral pro- duction of the Alpine province has lost its significance as compared with other areas of the world in this century, striking ideas and theo- ries on the formation of mineral deposits originating from this domain have stimulated lively international discussion. This may be explained by the proximity of different peoples with varying geographical and intellectual backgrounds meeting in the Alpine region. Realizing this development some Italian colleagues, above all Remo Albertini and Guiliano Perna, initiated the (first) International Sym- posium on Mineral Deposits of the Alps in 1966. When I. ISMIDA won favorable attention, it was resolved to call further meetings at regular intervals. A different Alpine country was host and organizer each time. As a first summary of the historical development, we give a short record of previous meetings: I. ISMIDA Sept. 11-18,1966, held at Passo della Mendola/Italy II. ISM IDA Oct. 4-6, 1971,heldatBled/Yugoslavia III. ISMIDA Oct. 3-7, 1977, held at Leoben/ Austria IV. ISMIDA Oct. 5-10,1981, held at Berchtesgaden/Bavaria, FRG The present volume contains the greater number of papers pre- sented at the Fourth International Symposium on Mineral Deposits of the Alps, held at Berchtesgaden (Bavaria), Federal Republic of Ger- many, in 1981.

Marine Clastic reservoirs provides an integrated perspective to sandstone reservoir description and analysis. It combines analog-oriented methods fromsequence stratigraphy with rigorous stratigraphic and sedimentological description of cores and outcrops to develop a process-based analysis of sandstone facies. Twelve chapters, divided into 3 sections, first describe the specific use of sequence stratigraphy to catalog, identify, andpredict marine clastic reservoir facies. Next they examine the importance ofrigorous sedimentological and geomorphic description. Finally, marine depositional environments from delta systems to deep-sea fans arereviewed to give examples of these improved descriptive and analytical techniques

l J. Parnell It is widely documented that concentrations of metal may be associated with diverse organic materials, from living plants and animals through organic-rich sediments to crude oil, solid bitumen/pyrobitumen, and graphite. The signifi- cance of organic matter in mineralizing processes has been the subject of several special publications, including the proceedings of symposia on Oil and Ore (Garrard 1977), Organics in Ore Deposits (Dean 1986), the Role of Organisms and Organic Matter in Ore Deposition (MacQueen 1985), and Organic Matter in Hydrothermal Systems (Simoneit 1990). Recent research has made notable advances in the use of organic geochemical/pyrolysis data to assess the thermal maturity of ore deposits (e. g. , MacQueen and Powell 1983), the transport of metals in fluids which contain organic compounds (e. g. , Manning 1986), the role of microbiota in fixing metals (e. g. , Morton and Changkakoti 1987) and the nature of sulphate reduction in sulphide ores associated with hydrocarbons (e. g. , Leventhal 1990). The roles of fluid hydro- carbons in ore metal transport and solid hydrocarbons (bitumens) in ore metal deposition have been reviewed by Manning (1986) and Parnell (1988) respectively. This Volume places emphasis on bitumens; either bitumens which occur in ore deposits, or are enriched in or otherwise associated with metals. Inevitably some accounts describe cases where metals are associated with both bitumens and autochthonous organic matter (kerogen).

This volume contains a selection of papers presented to the Fourth International Symposium on Environmental Biogeochemistry (ISEB), and a conference on Biogeochemistry in Relation to Mining Industry and Environmental Pollution (Leaching Conferenc, held in Canberra, Aust ralia on August 26-31 and September 3-4, 1979, respectively. The ISEB were established to provide "a forum for uninhibited exchange of information and ideas among the biological, chemical, atmospheric and geolopical scientists working in the common area of biogeochemistry, encompassing soil and other earth sciences as weIL as the hydrosphere and atmosphere," By linking the fourth ISEB with the Leachinp Conference the scop.e of discussions was extended to encompass the application of biogeochemical processes to the mining industry. This wide-ranging philosophy is reflected in the breadth and diversity of the subjects covered in this book. The published papers are expanded versions of those presented at the meetings. They have all been scrutinized by at least one referee in addition to the editors. About 20% of the contributions to the meetings are not included, either because authors did not wish to publish or because the papers were not accepted by the editors."

These words are written on the SOOth anniversary of Columbus' discovery of the New World. Surely the deep-space exploration of other worlds in our Solar System over the past few decades is an event of similar magnitude. Man has traveled far enough to see Spaceship Earth suspended alone in black space. And he has voyaged even farther to marvel at the crescent Earth rising over the Moon's cratered terrain. Instrumented spacecraft have toured the entire Solar System even beyond the ninth planet Pluto. This work of science Morphology of the Rocky Members of the Solar System is an inquiry about our extended home. As with the Darwinian and Copernican paradigms, the nature of our planetary system, as the extended world around us, has great significance for those who ponder the human condition. The deep-space views of our Planet Ocean with its sweeping clouds, and moving oceans and creeping continents must rank as the greatest photograph ever taken. Viewing Spaceship Earth hanging in the vast void is an almost frightening experience. We are so alone! It is easy to understand why so many are attracted to a simpler account of origins, like the allegorical tale of creation written in heroic style (but eschewing math, maps, figures, tables, references, and evidence) in the first eleven chapters of Genesis. This treatise examines the morphology of the six rocky planets and their 27 satellites from a broad perspective.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS xiii 1 THE HISTORY AND ROMANCE OF THE GLYPTIC ARTS THE EARLIEST ENGRAVINGS 3 CLASSICAL GREECE: FROM SCARABOID TO CAMEO 6 ROMAN CAMEOS 11 THE DARK AND MIDDLE AGES 19 THE RENAISSANCE AND LATER 23 2 THE SUBJECTS: MYTHS, LEGENDS, HISTORICAL EVENTS, AND STORIES BEHIND THE)EWELS MYTHS AND LEGENDS 33 SYMBOLS 42 vii PORTRAITS 44 HISTORICAL EVENTS AND STORIES BEHIND THE ]EWELS 45 3 CAMEO PRODUCTION TOOLS AND TECHNIQUES 50 MATERIALS 60 CARVING CENTERS AND RENOWNED CARVERS 80 4 DISTINGUISHING uLD AND NEWCAMEOS CIRCA-DATING CAMEOS 92 DETECTING CAMEO FAKES, FRAUDS, AND FORGERIES 113 5 MODIFIED CAMEOS AND CAMEO IMITATORS GLASS CAMEOS 127 CAMEO GLASS 129 TASSIE GLASS 131 WEDGWOOD 132 SULPHIDES 135 CONTENTS viii PLASTIC CAMEOS 135 CAMEO W AX PORTRAITS 136 PLASTER OF PARIS AND SULPHUR CASTS 138 6 ApPRECIATING CAMEOS AS ART ELEMENTS OF V ALUE 149 7 BUILDINGA CAMEO COLLECTION BUYING AND SELLING CAMEOS 162 CAMEOS AS INVESTMENT GEMS 169 CARE AND CONSERVATION OF CAMEOS 170 8 GREAT AND HISTORIC COLLECTIONS 175 ApPENDIX 193 Auctions 193 Glyptic-Arts Booksellers 194 CONTENTS ix Appraisal Associations 194 Retail Sources for Cameos in the Uni ted States 194 CHRONOLOGY OF ENGRAVED STONES AND CAMEOS IN EUROPE 196 GLOSSARY OF GLypTIc-ART AND ]EWELRY TERMS 199 SUGGESTED READINGS AND BIBLIOGRAPHY 205 INDEX 210 CONTENTS x p r e a c e f In several years of studying the cameo and its development, I have interviewed connoisseurs and collectors throughout the United States,

In comparison with engineering, geology is a relatively new domain of know ledge. Man has been building almost from the moment he came down out of the trees or emerged from the caves. All of his structures were founded in or upon rock or soil. Before the end of what we call ancient history, he had learned a great deal about materials, mechanics, and structures. This empirical information had become an organized field of practical knowledge by the time of Leonardo da Vinci. Although both foundations and ma terials of construction were largely earthy, codified knowledge of neither one nor the other existed at that time. During the last two centuries, geology has emerged and has recently begun to take on a more quantitative aspect. A generation ago, it joined hands with civil engineering to create soil mechanics. Engineers began to apply the science of geology to foundations and materials with astoundingly successful results, and geologists began to acquire an understanding of engineering methods, applying what they could to their problems. Geologi cal engineering was born of this union. People of an older time employed stone and brick in construction, although cut brick and sawed stone were used more sparingly because of a scarcity in both suitable raw materials and techniques. They were used in Cambodia, for example. A material able to meet requirements was found nearby, known as itica culla. In India it was called vettu culla, but F. A."

As natural minerals, silica and silicates constitute by far the largest part of the earth's crust and mantle. They are equally important as raw materials and as mass produced items. For this reason they have been the subject of scientific research by geoscientists as well as by applied scientists in cement, ceramic, glass, and other industries. Moreover, intensive fun damental research on silicates has been carried out for many years because silicates are, due to their enormous variability, ideally suited for the study of general chemical and crystallographic principles. Several excellent books on mineralogy and cement, ceramics, glass, etc. give brief, usually descriptive synopses of the structure of silicates, but do not contain detailed discussions of their structural chemistry. A number of monographs on special groups of silicates, such as the micas and clay min erals, amphiboles, feldspars, and zeolites have been published which con tain more crystal chemical information. However, no modern text has been published which is devoted to the structural chemistry of silicates as a whole. Within the last 2 decades experimental and theoretical methods have been so much improved to the extent that not only have a large number of silicate structures been accurately determined, but also a better under standing has been obtained of the correlation between the chemical composition of a silicate and its structure. Therefore, the time has been reached when a modern review of the structural chemistry of silicates has become necessary."

My work Geochemistry oj organic matter in the ocean first appeared in Russian in 1978. Since then much progress has been made in the exploration of various forms of organic matter in the ocean: dissolved, colloidal, organic matter sus pended in particles and that contained in bottom sediments and in interstitial waters. The appropriate evidence is found in hundreds of articles and several re view works, such as Andersen (1977), Biogeochimie de [a matiere organique a ['interjace eau-sedimentmarine (1980), Duursma and Dawson (1981). A great amount of new information has been obtained in the Soviet Union's scientific institutions on the composition and distribution in natural waters and bottom sediments of organic matter and its separate components playing a crucial role in the formation of the chemical and biological structure of the ocean and its productivity, in the biogeochemistry of the elements and geochemistry of organic matter in the Earth's sedimentary cover. The areas of exploration have expanded over the past four-and-a-half years to embrace many new, little-known regions, including the Arctic seas. In contrast to the three preceeding decades, the research has been focused on investigating the existing forms, the distribution and accumulation of organic matter in near continental oceanic zones between land and sea, and in river estuaries.

In 1866 William P. Blake, professor of mineralogy, geology and mining at the College of California, parent to the University of California, Berkeley, prepared as a report to the State Board of Agriculture an "Annotated Catalog of the Principal Mineral Species Hitherto Recognized in California and the adjoining States and Territories. " Seventy-seven mineral species appeared on the list. It was the beginning of a series that became known as Minerals of California. This first catalog was followed in 1884 and 1886 by a list of 135 species compiled by H. G. Hanks, the first state mineralogist of California, and pub. lished in the fourth and sixth State Mining Bureau reports. Then beginning in 1914 with a volume prepared by A. S. Eakle, professor of mineralogy at the Uni versity of California, Berkeley, the Division of Mines and Geology published new editions in the series at approximately ten-year intervals. Author Year Mineral Species A. S. Eakle 1914 352 A. S. Eakle 1923 417 A. Pabst 1938 446 J. Murdoch and R. W. Webb 1948 516 J. Murdoch and R. W. Webb 1956 523 J. Murdoch and R. W. Webb 1966 602 (For a more detailed review of the Minerals of California series, see I. Campbell, 1966, pp. 13-19. ) For over 100 years the series has served those who have a historic, scientific or economic interest in California minerals."

The 30 contributions of this volume cover the main European regions for oil and gas exploration: the North Sea and adjacent areas, the central and eastern Mediterranean including offshore Albania, central and eastern Europe including Poland, Hungary, the Russian platform and offshore Bulgaria. Main topics are investigations to sequence stratigraphy, 3D-quantitative restoration and balanced structural sections, using the LOCACE equipment. Additional studies deal with a Monte Carlo method for generating models of porosity and permeability, with facies characterization using wireline logs or with petrographic applications of image analysis. As further reading this volume is of significant interest for researchers in oil and gas industries but also for scientists at universities.

Igneous petrology was to some extent essentially a descriptive sci ence until about 1960. The results were mainly obtained from field work, major element analyses, and microscopical studies. During the 1960's two simultaneous developments took place, plate tectonics became generally accepted, and the generation of magmas could now be related to the geodynamic features like convection cells and subduction zones. The other new feature was the development of new analytical apparatus which allowed high accuracy analyses of trace elements and isotopes. In addition it became possible to do ex perimental studies at pressures up to 100 kbar. During the 1970's a large amount of analytical data was obtained and it became evident that the igneous processes that control the compositions of magmas are not that simple to determine. The composition of a magma is controlled by the compositions of its source, the degree of partial melting, and the degree of fractionation. In order to understand the significance of these various processes the relationship between the physical processes and their geochemical consequences should be known. Presently there are several theories that attempt to explain the origin of the various magma types, and these theories can only be evaluated by turning the different ideas into quantitative models. We will so to speak have to do some book keeping for the various theories in order to see which ones are valid. the present book is intended as an introduction to the more fun damental aspects of quantitative igneous petrology."

Radiocarbon After Four Decades: An Interdisciplinary Perspective commemorates the 40th anniversary of radiocarbon dating. The volume presents discussions of every aspect of this dating technique, as well as chronicles of its development and views of future advancements and applications. All of the 64 authors played major roles in establishment, development or application of this revolutionary scientific tool. The 35 chapters provide a solid foundation in the essential topics of radiocarbon dating: Historical Perspectives; The Natural Carbon Cycle; Instrumentation and Sample Preparation; Hydrology; Old World Archaeology; New World Archaeology; Earth Sciences; and Biomedical Applications.

1 2 J. H. SCHROEDER and B. H. PURSER 1 Introduction A symposium convened during the Vth International Coral Reef Congress in Papeete, Tahiti, 1985, encouraged the editors to assemble this volume of case studies by participating and, especially, by nonparticipating scientists. An attempt was made to include case studies from various regions and geological periods, carried out on various scales from regional to ultrastructural. We hope to present an overall view of reef diagenesis. Although the volume focuses on reef diagenesis, fields also to be considered are biology, paleontology, and sedimentary facies distribution, as they provide the context and, to some extent, encompass the determinants of diagenetic processes. The scope has been limited to reef diagenesis because we feel that reefs have relatively clearly defined geometries, which facilitate the evaluation of diagenetic trends and the definition of diagenetic models. On the other hand, their many different components make reefs somewhat more complex than other deposits, and this creates difficulties in deciphering diagenetic histories; the study of reefs, therefore, is not the simplest manner of solving the many problems relating to carbonate diagenesis. An additional reason for evaluating reef diagenesis is the reservoir potential of these carbonate bodies. To illustrate the point, in the recent collection of 35 case studies of carbonate reservoirs (Roehl and Choquette 1985), reefs were involved in 15. The emphasis on porosity development in many studies of the present volume is therefore not of mere academic interest.

The establishment of relationships between sediment composition and climatic - vironment in the sediment basin and subsequent evolution of climate relates to the classical problems of fundamental sedimentology. The widely known publications by the Russian academicians N. M. Strakhov, A. B. Ronov, and A. P. Lisitsin are dedicated to different aspects of this problem. In particular, the monograph p- lished by A. P. Lisitsin "Sea-ice and iceberg sedimentation in the Ocean: recent and past" (Lisitsin, 2002) closely corresponds to the issues examined in this book. This monograph discusses in detail the environments and means of accumulations of recent marine and oceanic sediments in the ice zone of sedimentation of the Ocean, however, much less attention is given to the history of ice sedimentation, especially to high-resolution paleoceanography. In the present work the authors accepted the following basic principles: 1. StudynotonlyoftheArctic, butalsooftheSubarctic, especiallyofthoseregions, where there were conducted the original studies by the authors. 2. Study of climatic history in uence ( rst of all, - the glaciation evolution of NorthernHemisphere)on sedimentationforthe last 130ka (MIS5e - MIS1)not only in the marine periglacial environment (term of G. G. Matishov), but also in the deep water areas and on the adjacent continental blocks. 3. Imperative description of recent sedimentation environment for subsequent - plication of the comparative-lithologicalmethod. 4. Detailed consideration of accessible stratigraphic and geo-chronometricdata for partition and correlation of various sedimentary facies. Some of the above-mentionedprinciples require further explanation.

Considerable progress has been made in our understanding of the physicochemical evolution of natural rocks through systematic analysis of the compositional properties and phase relations of their mineral assemblages. This book brings together concepts of classical thermodynamics, solution models, and atomic ordering and interactions that constitute a major basis of such analysis, with appropiate examples of application to subsolidus petrological problems. This book is written for an audience with a senior undergraduate level background in chemistry. Derivations of fundamental thermodynamic relations which are in need of reemphasis and clarification are presented.

Each gem deposit-whether of primary origin in the parent rocks; or secondary as alluvial placers in valley floors, river gravels, or the sand of oceanic shelves presents an eloquent chronicle of the Earth's life story. It reveals to the expert the prodigious processes which formed the present crust of our planet, of which this volume discloses a small but exciting detail. The materials of the Earth's crust are the rocks. In this book, the author expounds on how they were formed, why they altered, why they became the cradles of precious gemstones, how they are categorized, and how they are now exploited by man. What initiates the growth of gemstones? How do they crystallize? Why do gemstones of the same species, originating from different sources, vary? What causes the occurrence of varieties? Why do diamonds, unlike other precious stones, occur not near the Earth's surface in its crust, but deep down beneath it in the upper mantle? These are only a few of the entrancing subjects discussed in this enlightening volume. The reader learns that the Earth is surprisingly alive and altering constantly-sometimes through slow and equable changes and at times by violent and tremendous cataclysms, events from which gemstones issue.

This series of monographs represents continuation on an international basis of the previous series MINERALOGIE UNO PETROGRAPHIE IN EINZELOARSTELLUNGEN, published by Springer-Verlag. The voluminous results arising from recent progress in pure and applied re search increase the need for authoritative reviews but the standard scientific journals are unable to provide the space for them. By their very nature, text-books are unable to consider specific topics in depth and recent research met'hods and results often receive only cursory treat ment. Advanced reference volumes are usually too detailed except for experts in the field. It is often very expensive to purchase a symposium volume or an "Advances in . . . " volume for the sake of a specific review chapter surrounded by unrelated chapters. We hope that this monograph series will by-pass these problems in fulfilling the need. The purpose of the series is to publish, at reasonable prices, reviews and reports of care fully selected topics written by carefully selected authors, who are both good writers and experts in their scientific field. In general, the mono graphs will be concerned with the most recent research methods and results. The editors hope that the monographs will serve several functions, acting as supplements to existing text-books, guiding research workers, and providing the basis for advanced seminars. August 1967 W. VON ENGELHARDT, Tiibingen T. HAHN, Aachen R. Roy, University Park, Pa. J. W. WINCHESTER, Ann Arbor, Mich. P. J. WYLLIE, Chicago, Ill."

It is a pleasure to any author to enlarge the circle of his readers. Naturally this is a pleasure to me. At the same time, however, misgivings arise: whether these pages will con vey to the circle of new readers the thoughts that excite the author. Science is advancing rapidly in our day. It is already apparent that many things in the book should have been stated differently. I have tried to make additions to the English-language edition in such a way that they do not require great alteration of the text. I ask my new readers to remember that this book was written primarily for my fellow countrymen and that, because of this, some chapters contain descriptions of regions little known to you and information on the USSR almost unknown from other publications. I hope that, despite this, geologists who read the English-language edition will find something of interest to themselves in it and that their labor will not have been in vain. Yu. M. Sheinmann Institute of Phys ics of the Earth Moscow v PREFACE The study of endogenetic processes has long pushed us into investigation of ever deeper parts of the earth. Not long ago all attention was focused on depths where ore deposits appear, where metamorphic and igneous rocks, which later become exposed at the surface, are formed, where granites originate."

Time is a major factor in Quaternary science. Without a trustworthy chronometer any interpretation of changes in proxy data of stratigraphical origin is on weak ground. In fact, any attempt at a sound reconstruction of timing and rates of past climatic change as well as the response of the biosphere can only be achieved on the basis of a reliable chronology. Moreover, all correlations and comparisons through time on a continental or global scale depend heavily on the reliability of the time-scale used. Therefore the establishment of an absolute time-scale is a fundamental goal. In this contribution we refer to the term "absolute time-scale" as a time-scale consisting of ages determined on the basis of sidereal years. Traditional stratigraphical methods of absolute dating include the Swedish glacial varve chronology, already developed early in this century by De Geer (1912) and since then continuously improved (e.g. Stromberg 1985; Cato 1987). Unfortunately, however, a spatial correlation with other stratigraphies outside Fennoscandia is difficult.

Only a few years ago, if you needed an appraisal of The revolution in the personal property appraisals gems and jewelry for any reason, you asked your local field (of which jewelry is a part) is a little more than a jeweler, who hastily scribbled a one-line handwritten decade old. There now exist uniform standards and note. He or she usually performed the appraisal for procedures for personal property appraisers, classes free, and did so with reluctance, accommodating you in valuation techniques, and degree programs in the only because as a customer you held the promise of a valuation sciences. future sale. The price your jeweler may have assigned Professional jewelry appraisers are on the edge of to the jewelry was granted without the least regard a new vocation. Banks, insurance companies, and for market research, legalities, or ethics. In most in governmental agencies have all helped bring about stances, the estimate was no more than a properly the changes and contribute to the birth of the profes completed sales receipt. sion; they have realized that they can demand and Gemologists were usually pushed into the role of get high standards of performance and integrity from appraiser by their jeweler employers, who were eager jewelry appraisers, as they can from appraisers of real to gain an advantage over their competitors by adver property."

As a method of structure analysis, electron diffraction has its own spe cial possibilities and advantages in comparison to the X -ray method for the study of finely dispersed minerals with layer or pseudolayer structures. How ever, possibly because of the prior existence of the X-ray method, which found universal application in different fields and attracted the main efforts of spe cialists, electron diffraction has been unevenly disseminated and developed in different countries. In particular, the oblique texture method, which gives very complete and detailed structural information, has been mainly used in the Soviet Union, where electron-diffraction cameras specially suited to the method have been constructed. In other countries, studies have been made of micro-single crystals, because these studies could be carried out with existing electron microscopes. It should be recognized that the scale of distribution and use attained by electron-diffraction methods, at present limited by exist ing experimental conditions. is more than justified by the value of the results which may be obtained by their aid. The author hopes that the present book will give the reader a fuller idea of the valuable advantages of the method, and of the structural crystallography picture which has been built up for clay minerals, and layer silicates in general, from electron-diffraction data. The time between the appearance of this book and that of the Russian edition has been comparatively short."