During the last few years, carbonatites have received a considerable amount of attention. Some of this interest was no doubt kindled by the importance of volatiles in the Earth's mantle, particularly CO , by the fact that carbonatites 2 can be used to monitor the chemical evolution of the sub-continental upper mantle, and by the fact that carbonatites may be effective metasomatizing agents at both mantle and crustal levels. The interest in Oldoinyo Lengai has extended over at least 100 years, but it was not until the eruptions of 1960, when the unique carbonatitic nature of its lavas was recognized, that the volcano took on special significance in volcanology and igneous petrology. The recognition of carbonatitic flows coin cided with the first successful laboratory experiments carried out on carbonatitic melts. Since then, Oldoinyo Lengai has formed a cornerstone in all carbonatite discussions. It is probably true to say that the findings from Oldoinyo Lengai have dominated our ideas about carbonatites, in spite of the fact that the alkali rich, natrocarbonatitic lavas of Oldoinyo Lengai are markedly different from other carbonatites.

Everyone is familiar with the daily changes of air temperature. The barometer shows that these are accompanied by daily changes of mass distribution of the atmosphere, and consequently with daily motions of the air. In the tropics the daily pressure change is evident on the barographs; in temperate and higher latitudes it is not noticeable, being overwhelmed by cyclonic and anticyclonic pressure variations. There too, however, the daily change can be found by averaging the variations over many days; and the same process suffices to show that there is a still smaller lunar tide in the atmosphere, first sought by Laplace. Throughout nearly two centuries these 'tides', thermal and gravitational, have been extensively discussed in the periodical literature of science, although they are very minor phenomena at ground level. This monograph summarizes our present knowledge and theoretical under standing of them. It is more than twenty years since the appearance of the one previous monograph on them - by Wilkes - and nearly a decade since they were last comprehensively reviewed, by Siebert. The intervening years have seen many additions to our know ledge of the state of the upper atmosphere, and of the tides there, on the basis of measurements by radio, rockets and satellites.

In the first edition of this book, we observed that it had been created to fill a need for a usable "self-contained volume on hydrodynamics" (and hydrogeology) that was written specifically for the petroleum industry, but could also serve the earth science community in general. When the first edition was published (1982), M. K. Hubbert, the father of petroleum hydrodynamics, was approaching the final stages of his very productive career. For this reason, the book served as a vehicle to amplify his concepts and spread and stimulate applications of some of his theories and methods throughout the exploration sectors of the petroleum industry. This was accomplished by blending discussions of Hubbert's concepts with some of the procedures used by industry specialists to answer practical oil and gas questions. The simple aim of the book was to bring this material to the fingertips of working geologists and geophysicists, who were "evaluating the hydrocarbon possibilities in larger exploration regions or assessing the potential of small, local subsurface oil and gas prospects. " It was also hoped that by treating areas of conceptual overlap between petroleum geology and ground water hydrology, workers in both disciplines would be brought into closer contact, resulting in mutual benefits gained through healthy scientific and technical interaction. This remains our objective in the second edition, although it has become apparent that additional material is needed to satisfactorily achieve it. The size of this volume reflects the new subject matter.

Glass Chemistry is concerned with the relation of chemical composition, structure and properties of various glasses. The book has been translated from the third German edition, which serves as a textbook for university students in materials sciences and a reference book for scientists and engineers in glass science and production. The central themes of the book are the chemistry and physics of glass. Detailed knowledge of the compositional and structural facts is the basis for the systematic development of new glasses as construction and optical materials.
Glass Chemistry is an interdisciplinary book on the borderlines between chemistry, physics, mineralogy and even biology and medicine. The book represents a well balanced treatment for students, scientists and engineers.

The papers in this volume are dedicated to Professor Dr. Dr. h.c. G. Christian Amstutz by his colleagues, friends, and students on the occasion of his 60th anniversary. The authors of this book - the theme was restricted to syngenesis and epigenesis in the formation of mineral deposits - wish to honour with their articles a scientist who has contributed to, and substantially promoted the understanding of the genesis of mineral deposits in the last decades. The majority of the articles deal with strata-bound depos its, thus reflecting one of his main scientific interests. In the tradition of his professors, Paul Niggli and Paul Ramdohr, G.C. Amstutz has maintained an open and active interest in many fields of earth science. His numerous papers have triggered a remarkable number of new ideas and investigations in a variety of fields, and the "happy marriage" of economic geology with sedimentology is cer tainly one of his main successes, starting with the first Symposium on Sedimentology and Ore Genesis at the Sixth International Sedimentological Congress at Delft in 1963."

The literature on the geology, chemistry, and biochemistry of phosphorus generally takes its mineralogy for granted. The in cidental information on phosphate minerals given in these texts is often obsolescent and inaccurate. The few mineralogical texts that have dealt comprehensively with the phosphate minerals have now become outdated, and typically present the essential information in a manner unsuitable for nongeological readers. This volume is intended as a ready reference for workers who require good basic information on phosphate minerals or their synthetic equivalents. The topics covered should appeal to geologists and geochemists, lithologists, environmental scientists and engineers, chemists and biochemists who have any interest in the intricate world of phosphorus. The hard tissues of many vertebrates and the many pathological calcifications consist mostly of phosphate minerals. The precipita tion of these compounds also plays a major role in the ecological cycling of phosphorus, and occasionally even dominates the behavior of many trace metals in many geochemical and biolog ical systems. Indeed, many pegmatitic phosphate minerals have acquired some notoriety because of the rarer trace metals which they tend to accumulate. With the commercialization of phosphate fertilizers since the early part of the 19th century, phosphate minerals have assumed an important role in industrial chemistry and agriculture. Clearly, the study of phosphate minerals is important from the economic, agricultural, environmental and (human and animal) health viewpoint."

The main aim of this paper is to present some new and general results, ap plicable to the the equations of two phase flow, as formulated in geothermal reservoir engineering. Two phase regions are important in many geothermal reservoirs, especially at depths of order several hundred metres, where ris ing, essentially isothermal single phase liquid first begins to boil. The fluid then continues to rise, with its temperature and pressure closely following the saturation (boiling) curve appropriate to the fluid composition. Perhaps the two most interesting theoretical aspects of the (idealised) two phase flow equations in geothermal reservoir engineering are that firstly, only one component (water) is involved; and secondly, that the densities of the two phases are so different. This has led to the approximation of ignoring capillary pressure. The main aim of this paper is to analyse some of the consequences of this assumption, especially in relation to saturation changes within a uniform porous medium. A general analytic treatment of three dimensional flow is considered. Pre viously, three dimensional modelling in geothermal reservoirs have relied on numerical simulators. In contrast, most of the past analytic work has been restricted to one dimensional examples."

The problem of time-and strata-bound formation of ore deposits has during the past decade become one of the most debated topics in cur rent international discussion. Due to the amazing results of modern mineral exploration and world-wide geophysical research, the mutual relationship between the complex geological history pf a crustal seg ment and the development of distinct metallogenic provinces (ore belts) has received much interest. Reviewing the earth's history in this light one can now recognize metallogenic epochs even of global range which document the existence of world-wide time-bound ore enrich ments. The knowledge of these metallogenetic processes has been growing step by step for several decades. It began with simple observations and sceptic interpretations, which at first threw heretical spot lights on to the edifices of the prevailing theories on granitic differentiation as the favoured source of ore deposits. It was obvious that the new ideas at first referred to ore enrichments in sedimentary sequences, nowadays summarized under the term strata-bound, and mainly interpreted as stratiform or sedimentary ore deposits. Moreover, the modern term "strata-bound" also includes ore mineralizations which are bound to distinct units of layered (intrusive or extrusive) igneous complexes as a general descriptive term without genetical restriction Albert Maucher is one of the representatives of the initial era who discussed these genetical questions critically in the decade before the 2nd World War."

Archaean Geochemistry 1972 - 1984 The realisation that the continental crust contains well-preserved relics which date as far back as 4/5 of the Earth's age has given a great impetus to the study of early Precambrian terrains. As late as the mid-sixties the Archaean still constituted the 'terra-in cognita' of earth science. High metamorphic grades, poor out crop, and not least a widely assumed obliteration of early crustal records by convective recycling and thermal reworking had com bined to discourage research in this field. Many excellent local studies existed, notably around gold mining centres, but remained unrelated to a broader regional and theoretical understanding. This situation has changed as the consequence of two inter-related factors: (1) advances in isotopic methods and their application to Precambrian rocks, and (2) the recognition that some of the oldest terrains have retained a wealth of primary igneous and sedi mentary textures and even geochemical characteristics."

In its relentless pursuit of further knowledge, science tends to compartmentalize. Over the years the pursuit of What might be called geophysical acoustics of the sea-surface has languished. This has occured even through there are well-developed and active research programs in underwater acoustics, ocean hydrodynamics, cloud and precipitation physics, and ice mechanics - to name a few - as well as a history of engineering expertise built on these scientific fields. It remained to create a convergence, a dialogue across disciplines, of mutual benefit. The central theme of the Lerici workshop, perhaps overly simplified, was 'What are the mechanisms causing ambient noise at the upper surface of the ocean?' What could hydrodynamicists contribute to a better understanding of breaking wave dynamics, bubble production, ocean wave dynamics, or near-surface turbulence for the benefit of the underwater acoustics community? What further insights could fluid dynamicists gain by including acoustic measurements in their repertoire of instrumentation? While every attendee will have his or her percep tions of details, it was universally agreed that a valuable step had been taken to bring together two mature disciplines and that significant co-operative studies would undoubtedly follow. The scope of the workshop was enlarged beyond its original intent to also include the question of ice-noise generation. The success of this decision can be seen in high quality of the presentations. the contribution of its disciples in the other workshop discussions and the heightened awareness and interest of we other novices."

On February 19, 1973, five centuries have elapsed since the birth of Nicolaus Coperni cus - the greatest astronomer of the Renaissance period - who rediscovered for us the heliocentric model of the solar system, and documented it by his life's work in such a manner as to make its concept a permanent property of mankind. The life of Copernicus, extending from 19 February 1473 to his death on 24 May 1543, was not too rich in adventures or biographical facts. Born in Toruti from a family of Polish burghers, he received his first university training in Cracow between 1491-1494. From Cracow he proceeded to Italy to spend the years between 1496-1503 at the Universities of Bologna, Padua and Ferrara - with occasional visits to Rom- in preparation for an ecclesiastical career. When Bishop Watzenrode - his patron and maternal uncle - could no longer extend his leave, Copernicus returned to Poland in 1503 to enter the service of the church establishment, which soon led to a canonry at the Frombork (Frauenburg) Cathedral in Warmia. And there - in the northern mists not far from the Baltic shores - in a land so different in climate from the sunny Italy of his youth - he was destined to spend the rest of his life."

Basic magmatic rocks make up approximately three-quarters of the crust ofthe present day Earth. Because we can observe and study the volcanic products of present day tectonic regimes comprehensively, we can shed light on ancient tectono-magmatic provinces, and thereby deduce the petrogenesis and evolution of the oldest basic rocks. This is the primary objective of this book. The book was conceived in order to provide a comprehensive review of the basic rocks produced during the first half of the Precambrian, i.e. the Archaean and early Proterozoic, to about 1.8 Ga years ago. Two major questions are addressed. First, what basic magmas were generated during the early Precambrian: were these magmas globally uniform, and to what extent were prevailing tectonic controls and compo sitions analogous to those of the present day? Clearly, this can be answered only by bringing together fundamental information about all relevant basic magmatic events. Second, is there any systematic temporal variation in the nature of basic suites, and what implications might such variations have on our interpretations of early Earth history? Are there important differences between early Archaean, late Archaean, Proterozoic and modern basic magmatic suites? The book uses two approaches to address these questions. Early chapters examine the fundamental characteristics of these basic rocks, whilst later chapters assess regional distribution and development by providing an overview of each major early Precambrian craton."

The fourth volume in this series consists of eleven chapters. The first five deal with more theoretical aspects of the kinetics and mechanisms of meta morphic reactions, and the next six consider the interdependence of defor mation and metamorphism. All papers deal with natural processes that inter act on various time scales and with different degrees of mass and heat transfer. Consequently, many fundamental axioms of metamorphic petrol ogy and structural geology are questioned both for their accuracy and their usefulness. In raising such questions, most contributors have pointed to ways in which the answers could be forthcoming from appropriate experi mental studies or observations on natural materials. In their discussion of how order/disorder can influence mineral assem blages, Carpenter and Putnis emphasize that metastable crystal growth is common in metamorphic systems and state' 'there may be some reluctance (among many earth scientists) to accept that significant departures from equilibrium could occur." On the basis of presented evidence, they question whether reactions ever occur close to an equilibrium boundary. The neces sity for pressure or temperature overstepping is also required by nucleation rate theory. In any case, the degree of order is severely influenced by these kinetic effects in igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic environments."

1.1. HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF THE OPHIOLITE CONCEPT. Ophiolite, Greek for 'the snake stone', appears to have received its first written definition by Brongniart (1813) as a serpentine matrix containing various minerals. Later in 1821 and 1827, Brongniart determined that volcanic and gabbroic rocks were also present, associated with cherts, and he ascribed an igneous origin to the ophiolite. Amstutz (1980) gives an excellent exegesis of these early contributions and traces the further use of the term and concept of ophiolite. This concept had been forged in the western Alps and Apennines where, thanks to talented Italian geologists, in particular A. Sismonda, B. Gastaldi, V. Novarese and S. Franchi, the study on metamorphic ophiolites (the 'pietre verdi') has rapidly progressed. At the tum of the century the association of radiolarite, diabase, gabbro (euphotide), and serpentinite-peridotite was clearly identified, even through their metamorphic transformations. In 1902, Franchi developed the hypothesis introduced earlier by Lotti (1886), of a submarine outflow to explain the 'pietre verdi' association, on the basis of the attribution of the variolites and metamorphic prasinites to an hypabyssal volcanism, also responsible for the formation of radiolarites. Thus, before the popular work of Steinmann in 1927, the various components constituting an ophiolite had been identified and its hypabyssal origin proposed. As recalled by Amstutz (1980), the so-called 'Steinmann trinity', which consists of the association of radiolarites, diabases and serpentinites, was more completely and better defined in these earlier works.

work on structural and stratigraphic relationships is presented from various parts of the mountain belt. In the first paper of the section, R. O. Greiling (Heidelberg) describes the Middle Allochthon of Vasterbotten, northern Sweden, where tectonic windows through the Upper Allochthon (Seve Nappe) show that the Middle Allochthon has a similar lithostratigraphy to that of the Stalon Nappe Complex of the eastern Caledonian margin but with a more ductile deformation and metamorphosed to a higher grade following thrust emplacement. These relations are explained by suggesting that the window rocks were initially subducted beneath a colliding western plate but were later accreted to the base of the western plate and thrust with it. The thrust geometry of the windows, described as antiformal stacks, agrees with this model. The Middle Allochthon of the Caledonian margin in northern Sweden is described by R. O. Greiling and R. Kumpulainen (Heidelberg and Stockholm) who record two distinct metasedimentary units separated by a thick zone of mylonites interpreted as a lateral thrust ramp. Turbidites in the northern unit were derived from an unidentified igneous source to the east and cannot be correlated with other sequences in the Middle Allochthon. In another paper dealing with the northern Swedish Caledonides, L. Hansen (Uppsala) describes down-to-the-west normal faults cutting the autochthonous Cambrian sediments in the tunnel sections of the Vietas Hydropower Station, but themselves being truncated by the basal decollement of the Lower Allochthon.

In recent years mineralogy has developed even stronger links with solid-state chemistry and physics and these developments have been accompanied by a trend towards further quantification in the theoretical as well as the experimental aspects of the subject. The importance of solid-state chemistry to mineralogy was reflected in a symposium held at the 1982 Annual Congress of The Royal Society of Chemistry at which the original versions of most of the contributions to this book were presented. The meeting brought together chemists, geologists and mineralogists all of whom were interested in the application of modern spectroscopic techniques to the study of bonding in minerals. The interdisci plinary nature of the symposium enabled a beneficial exchange of information from the various fields and it was felt that a book presenting reviews of the key areas of the subject would be a useful addition to both the chemical and mineralogical literature. The field of study which is commonly termed the 'physics and chemistry of minerals' has itself developed very rapidly over recent years. Such rapid development has resulted in many chemists, geologists, geochemists and mineralogists being less familiar than they might wish with the techniques currently available. Central to this field is an understanding of chemical bonding or 'electronic structure' in minerals which has been developed both theoretically and by the use of spectroscopic techniques."

The Advanced Science Institute on which this publication is based took the somewhat unusual form of a geological field symposium held during late August 1984. It was designed to demonstrate to experienced earth scientists from the North Atlantic area the full range of geological phenomena encountered in the British Caledonian rocks. The ASl travelled from South Wales to the far northwest of Scotland by the route shown on the map and in doing so examined sedimentary, igneous and metamorphic rocks from Pembrokeshire (Dyfed), Cardigan (Ceridigian), Snowdonia, Anglesey, the English Lake District and the Southern Uplands and Highlands of Scotland. Thus the fifty or so participants in the ASl studied the geological history and major structures of rocks exposed on either side of the supposed Lower Palaeozoic Iapetus Ocean the British sector of which closed to the south of the present Southern Uplands. Wales (1-5) afforded insight into the nature of the late Precambrian basement of England and Wales and the relationship of sedimentary and volcanic cover sequences to this basement. The Ordovician sequence in Wales is a sample of the volcanic rocks typical of a marginal basin, and were examined in Pembrokeshire and Snowdonia. The English Lake District (6) displays rocks from an island arc also of Ordovician age.

Clays and soils are of great importance in various scientific fields, such as agriculture and environmental science, and in mineral deposits. Students and close collaborators of Georges Millot, the eminent French clay sedimentologist, have put together a book with topics ranging from weathering processes and diagenetic evalution of sediments to sedimentary mineral deposits. The book is of interest to practitioners, advanced students as well as teachers in the above fields.

Granulites are, by definition, rocks that crystallized at high temperatures. It is generally agreed that they were formed in regions where the geothermal gradient exceeded normal continental values. These rocks commonly display coronitic mineral fabrics which may be used to trace the thermal and geodynamic history of the continental crust. In the same way that eclogites provide information on the earliest stages of some orogenic episodes, granulites usually tell us about later events, including thermal anomalies, thermal reequilibration, CO streaming, crustal melting, and 2 differentiation of the continental crust. Their study is particularly important if we are to under stand the nature of the middle and lower continental crust. Consistent with the contributions I received, the contents of this volume fall into four general areas: Crustal Evolution, Regional Syntheses, F1uids and Petrological Equilibria, Geochemistry and Geophysics. These represent an up-to-date reflection of the centres of interest in the field of granulites. The first manuscripts arrived in September 1988 while the conference was held, the last contribution arrived in November 1989, more than a year later. I apologize to those who were prompt and took deadlines seriously, but I believe that it was worth waiting to secure a product covering most of the important aspects concerning granulite genesis. All papers were vetted by at least two reviewers. I would like to thank RJ. Arculus, N.T. Arndt, P. Barbey, SR. Bohlen, AM. Boullier, M. Brown, T. Chacko, 1.D. Clemens, K.C. Condie, J.C. Duchesne, C. Dupuy, w.G."

This book consists of a collection of papers presented at the NATO Advanced Research Workshop (ARW) on "Crust/mantle Recycl ing at Convergence Zones," held in Antalya, Turkey, between May 25 to 29, 1987. The workshop was attended by 36 earth scientists from ten countries and 28 papers were presented. Crust/mantle recycling is one of the most fundamental processes in the Earth. The study and understanding of this process requires the consideration of the Earth as a whole system including the atmosphere, the hydrosphere and the core, as well as the crust and the mantle; effective interdisciplinary collaboration is therefore essential to our progress. The Antalya ARW gave us the opportunity to assemble key specialists from relevant branches of the earth sciences and to address our state of knowledge. This ARW proved to be very useful in attaining an interdisciplinary, mutual understanding among specialists from diverse fields such as isotope and trace element geochemistry, mineral physics, theoretical geophysics, seismology, experimental petrology, and structural geology.

Identificationof rock-forming minerals in thin section is a key skill needed by all earth science students and practising geologists. This translation of the completely revised and updated German second edition (by Leonore Hoke, Institute of Geological and Nuclear Sciences, New Zealand) provides a comprehensive guide to identifying 140 of the most important rock-forming mineral species. The book is divided into three main parts. Part A is a practical guide to the fundamentals of crystal optics, polarization microscopy and the practical use of microscopes. Part B gives a detailed description of the characteristic optical features, special features, and the paragenesis of the most common rock-forming minerals. This well-illustrated part is divided into opaque minerals, isotropic, uniaxial and optical biaxial mineral groups. Part C contains identification tables for the minerals and diagrams showing the international classification of magmatic rocks, as well as a colour plate section showing crystal forms of minerals. The book will provide an invaluable guide to all undergraduate earth scientists, as well as to professional geologists requiring an overview of mineral identification in thin section.

Over 60% of the Earth's surface is covered with deep marine sediments, however, until the early 1980s, no comprehensive text books appeared to support the rapid expansion in the study of these sediments. While the whole field of marine geology has expanded enormously and entirely new disciplines, such as paleoceanography, have been developed, there remains a lack of reference texts on study techniques that investigators in the marine community can turn to. Minerals and Mineraloids in Marine Sediments is an optical identifica tion guide that I believe will become a standard reference text for use in the microscope analysis of marine sediment& and sedimentary rocks. The systematic collection of sediment cores from the deep ocean floor began in earnest with the Swedish Deep Sea Expedition, 1947-1948. Much of the microscopic examination of the sediments collected in these piston cores (10 m+ long) was conducted on separated grain mounts or thin sections of impregnated sediments. By the late 1960s a simpler technique of examining a mounted smear of the cored silt and clay size sediment on a microscope slide had become standard practice in American oceanographic institutions. This semi quantitative technique became the standard tool used in core description aboard Glomar Challenger through the 15 years of the Deep Sea Drilling Project (DSDP), 1968-1983. Visual percentage estimates of biogenic and mineral components were made using petrologic micro scopes."

Statistical evaluations of exploration data are the basis for decisions to be made at various stages of an exploration project. In contrast to other geostatistical books, Statistical Evaluations in Exploration for Mineral Deposits focuses not only on theory, but examples are also given, frequently originating from experience in mineral exploration by the author who worked worldwide for a mining company. Together with its companion volume, Economic Evaluations in Exploration, the book illustrates methods used in exploration campaigns and mining activities. It is intended as a vademecum for geologists who are forced to make quick decisions regarding an exploration project. It also addresses scientists and students involved in teaching or in mineral economic evaluations, recommendations or decisions.

This book represents the proceedings of the 9th written by a very active group of physicists at Kongsberg seminar, held at the Norwegian Mining the University of Oslo - physicists interested in Museum located in the city of Kongsberg about complex systems in general and geo-like systems 70 km Southwest of Oslo. The Kongsberg district in particular. is known for numerous Permian vein deposits of The content of the book is organized into three native silver, and mining activity in the area lasted major parts following the introductory chapter. for more than 300 years, finally ceasing in 1957. Chapters 2 to 7 primarily treat the role of fluids The previous eight Kongsberg seminars were in specific geological environments, ranging from focused on ore-forming processes and all of these sedimentary basins (Chapters 2-3) to contact were organized by Professor Arne Bj0rlykke, now metamorphic/hydrothermal scenarios (Chapters director of the Norwegian Geological Survey. 4-5) and regional metamorphic settings (Chapters Since process-orientated research tends to break 6-7). The following four chapters (8-11) focus down the traditional barriers between the different on various properties of fluid-rock systems that geological disciplines, this seminar has always are critical in controlling flow and transport been a meeting point for people with a variety through rocks. These include: mineral solubility of geological backgrounds.

This book has been prepared by the collaborative effort of two somewhat separate technical groups: the researchers at the Institute for Petroleum and Organic Geochemistry, Forschungszentrum Jii lich (KFA), and the technical staff of Integrated Exploration Systems (IES). One of us, Donald R. Baker, from Rice University, Houston, has spent so much time at KFA as a guest scientist and researcher that it is most appropriate for him to contribute to the book. During its more than 20-year history the KFA group has made numerous and significant contributions to the understanding of petroleum evolution. The KFA researchers have emphasized both the field and laboratory approaches to such important problems as source rock recognition and evaluation, oil and gas generation, maturation of organic matter, expulsion and migration of hydrocarbons, and crude oil composition and alteration. IES Jiilich has been a leader in the development and application of numerical simulation (basin modeling) procedures. The cooperation between the two groups has resulted in a very fruitful synergy effect both in the development of modeling software and in its application. The purpose of the present volume developed out of the 1994 publication by the American Association of Petroleum Geologists of a collection of individually authored papers entitled The Petroleum System - From Source to Trap, edited by L. B. Magoon and W. G. Dow."